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      Decision-Making by Handball Referees: Design of an ad hoc Observation Instrument and Polar Coordinate Analysis

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          Abstract

          Referees are essential for sports such as handball. However, there are few tools available to analyze the activity of handball referees. The aim of this study was to design an instrument for observing the behavior of referees in handball competitions and to analyze the resulting data by polar coordinate analysis. The instrument contained 6 criteria and 18 categories and can be used to monitor and describe the actions of handball referees according to their role/position on the playing court. For the data quality control analysis, we calculated Pearson's (0.99), Spearman's (0.99), and Tau Kendall's (1.00) correlation coefficients and Cohen's kappa (entre 0.72 y 0.75) and Phi (entre 0.83 y 0.87) coefficients. In the generalizability analysis, the absolute and relative generalizability coefficients were 0.99 in both cases. Polar coordinate analysis of referee decisions showed that correct calls were more common for central court and 7-meter throw calls. Likewise, calls were more likely to be incorrect (in terms of both errors of omission and commission) when taken from the goal-line position.

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          HOISAN 1.2: Programa informático para uso en Metodología Observacional

          La herramienta HOISAN (Herramienta de Observación de las Interacciones Sociales en Ambientes Naturales) es una aplicación informática que permite la codificación, registro, descripción y manipulación de grabaciones o del visionado en tiempo real desde una o varias cámaras. Permite trabajar con todos los tipos de datos: secuencias de eventos, de estados, mixtas, de intervalos de tiempo y de eventos multimodales. La métrica del registro observacional utiliza parámetros primarios y medidas derivadas o secundarias. Tiene la capacidad de analizar la producción verbal, así como de calcular distintos tipos de acuerdo e índices de correlación. El programa admite el intercambio de datos con programas específicos de uso en Metodología Observacional (SDIS-GSEQ, OBSERVER, THEME y MOTS), otros programas de carácter general (hojas de cálculo, paquetes estadísticos, procesadores de textos), y programas para el análisis cualitativo (Atlas.ti) y la exportación de los datos a PDF. En este trabajo se presentan, además, los resultados de un análisis de calidad del dato pertenecientes a una herramienta de observación para el fútbol 7.
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            Science and medicine applied to soccer refereeing: an update.

            Soccer referees are required to keep up with play at all times to ensure optimal positioning in making key decisions. While the physiological aspects of soccer refereeing have been extensively reviewed, other key areas of preparation and performance have yet to be considered in detail. We present a contemporary examination of methodological considerations for the interpretation of referees' match activities, the validation of fitness testing and training protocols, match and training injury profiles, and the understanding and development of perceptual-cognitive expertise. A referee covers approximately 11 km during a match, with ∼900 m of high-speed running and, consequently, the demands of match play represent a significant physical challenge. The analyses of within-match activity profiles have attempted to assess the possible occurrence of referee fatigue, with equivocal findings. However, researchers have demonstrated that referees' physical performances are interrelated with those of the players during the same match. Therefore, the evaluation of referees' match activity profiles should be made in the context of the players' performances. High match-to-match variability in key variables, namely, high-speed running and sprinting, along with age-related reductions in match running are other factors that require due consideration when interpreting physical performances. Fitness testing is used by national and international referee governing bodies as part of their match selection criteria. Therefore, the tests need to reflect the physical task of refereeing, yet for the recent fitness tests introduced by the Fédération Internationale de Football Association--a 20 × 150 m high-intensity and 6 × 40 m repeated-sprint test - only the repeated-sprint test possesses the appropriate construct validity for assessment of match-related running capacity. Also, the performance standards of the tests have not been validated. Consequently, the scientific rationale behind the tests and their associated standards is not clear. Soccer referees dedicate a large proportion of their overall training to the development of physical capacity and researchers have demonstrated that high-intensity (>85% maximal heart rate) training protocols are effective for improving fitness and match running performance. These high training loads combined with increasing age could, in part, explain an incidence of non-contact match injuries (18 injuries per 1000 match hours) similar to players, with lower leg muscle strains being the most common type of non-contact injuries in referees. The implementation of injury prevention programmes along with the careful monitoring of training and match loads may help minimize referee's injury incidence. The perceptual-cognitive demands of soccer refereeing are significant, yet there remains limited research examining the perceptual and cognitive processes informing referees' decisions. As such, a three-step approach for the study of expertise in soccer referees is proposed. First, objective and reliable markers of decision making should be established, with due consideration to the development of naturalistic test situations while maintaining experimental control. Second, process-tracing measures can be used to identify the perceptual and cognitive mechanisms involved in accurate decision making. Finally, research is required to help understand the acquisition of superior decision making and whether such expertise can be developed via training programmes.
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              Goal Scoring in Soccer: A Polar Coordinate Analysis of Motor Skills Used by Lionel Messi

              Soccer research has traditionally focused on technical and tactical aspects of team play, but few studies have analyzed motor skills in individual actions, such as goal scoring. The objective of this study was to investigate how Lionel Messi, one of the world's top soccer players, uses his motor skills and laterality in individual attacking actions resulting in a goal. We analyzed 103 goals scored by Messi between over a decade in three competitions: La Liga (n = 74), Copa del Rey (n = 8), and the UEFA Champions League (n = 21). We used an ad-hoc observation instrument (OSMOS-soccer player) comprising 10 criteria and 50 categories; polar coordinate analysis, a powerful data reduction technique, revealed significant associations for body part and orientation, foot contact zone, turn direction, and locomotion. No significant associations were observed for pitch area or interaction with opponents. Our analysis confirms significant associations between different aspects of motor skill use by Messi immediately before scoring, namely use of lower limbs, foot contact zones, turn direction, use of wings, and orientation of body to move toward the goal. Studies of motor skills in soccer could shed light on the qualities that make certain players unique.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Psychol
                Front Psychol
                Front. Psychol.
                Frontiers in Psychology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1664-1078
                20 October 2017
                2017
                : 8
                : 1842
                Affiliations
                Departamento de Psicología Social, Trabajo Social, Antropología Social y Estudios de Asia Oriental, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Málaga , Málaga, Spain
                Author notes

                Edited by: José Luis Losada, University of Barcelona, Spain

                Reviewed by: Constantino Arce, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Spain; Juan-Carlos Tójar-Hurtado, University of Málaga, Spain

                *Correspondence: Antonio Hernández-Mendo mendo@ 123456uma.es

                This article was submitted to Quantitative Psychology and Measurement, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology

                Article
                10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01842
                5655026
                29104553
                2f539a39-ff78-4de2-9ee5-78953c5e738b
                Copyright © 2017 Morillo, Reigal, Hernández-Mendo, Montaña and Morales-Sánchez.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 14 January 2017
                : 03 October 2017
                Page count
                Figures: 3, Tables: 7, Equations: 0, References: 61, Pages: 9, Words: 6734
                Funding
                Funded by: Spanish Ministry of the Economy and European Regional Development (FEDER)
                Award ID: PSI2015-71947-REDT
                Award ID: DEP2015-66069-P
                Categories
                Psychology
                Original Research

                Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry
                refereeing,handball,polar coordinates,decision-making,systematic observation

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