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      Prevalence of Dirofilaria immitis among shelter dogs in Tokyo, Japan, after a decade: comparison of 1999–2001 and 2009–2011 Translated title: Prévalence de Dirofilaria immitis chez les chiens en chenil à Tokyo (Japon) après une décennie : comparaison de 1999–2001 et 2009–2011

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          Abstract

          Changes in the seroprevalence of Dirofilaria immitis infection among shelter dogs between a decade ago and the present were evaluated. Serum samples were collected from 200 adult dogs in urban and suburban areas in Tokyo, Japan, during two 2-year periods (April 1999 to March 2001 and April 2009 to March 2011). Sera were tested for the presence of D. immitis antigen using a specific commercialized kit. The seroprevalence of D. immitis infection was 46% in 1999–2001 and 23% in 2009–2011. A decrease was observed in the prevalence of infection between 1999–2001 and 2009–2011; in particular, the prevalence in urban areas decreased significantly compared with that in suburban areas ( P < 0.01). There was no significant difference in prevalence between the sexes in each period, but there was a significant difference between mixed-breed and purebred dogs ( P < 0.01). The decrease in prevalence of canine heartworm disease in urban areas could be related to better veterinary care.

          Translated abstract

          Les changements de séroprévalence d’infection à Dirofilaria immitis parmi les chiens en chenil ont été évaluées il y a une décennie et récemment. Des sérums provenant de 200 chiens adultes ont été collectés dans des zones urbaines ou péri-urbaines de Tokyo pendant deux périodes de deux ans (Avril 1999–Mars 2001 et Avril 2009–Mars 2011). Les sérums ont été testés pour la présence d’antigènes de D. immitis. La séroprévalence de l’infection par D. immitis était de 46 % en 1999–2001 et 23 % sur la période 2009–2011. Une diminution de la prévalence a été observée entre 1999–2001 et 2009–2011. En particulier, la prévalence en zones urbaines a significativement diminué par rapport à celle des zones péri-urbaines ( P < 0.01). Aucune différence significative n’a été notée entre les sexes pour chaque période mais il y avait une différence significative entre les chiens de race et les autres ( P < 0.01). La diminution de prévalence de la dirofilariose canine observée en zone urbaine pourrait être liée à un meilleur suivi vétérinaire.

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          Most cited references11

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          Heartworm disease in animals and humans.

          Heartworm disease due to Dirofilaria immitis continues to cause severe disease and even death in dogs and other animals in many parts of the world, even though safe, highly effective and convenient preventatives have been available for the past two decades. Moreover, the parasite and vector mosquitoes continue to spread into areas where they have not been reported previously. Heartworm societies have been established in the USA and Japan and the First European Dirofilaria Days (FEDD) Conference was held in Zagreb, Croatia, in February of 2007. These organizations promote awareness, encourage research and provide updated guidelines for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of heartworm disease. The chapter begins with a review of the biology and life cycle of the parasite. It continues with the prevalence and distribution of the disease in domestic and wild animals, with emphasis on more recent data on the spreading of the disease and the use of molecular biology techniques in vector studies. The section on pathogenesis and immunology also includes a discussion of the current knowledge of the potential role of the Wolbachia endosymbiont in inflammatory and immune responses to D. immitis infection, diagnostic use of specific immune responses to the bacteria, immunomodulatory activity and antibiotic treatment of infected animals. Canine, feline and ferret heartworm disease are updated with regard to the clinical presentation, diagnosis, prevention, therapy and management of the disease, with special emphasis on the recently described Heartworm Associated Respiratory Disease (HARD) Syndrome in cats. The section devoted to heartworm infection in humans also includes notes on other epizootic filariae, particularly D. repens in humans in Europe. The chapter concludes with a discussion on emerging strategies in heartworm treatment and control, highlighting the potential role of tetracycline antibiotics in adulticidal therapy.
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            Climate and Dirofilaria infection in Europe.

            Climatic changes, together with an increase in the movement of cats and dogs across Europe, have caused an increase in the geographical range of several vector borne parasites like Dirofilaria, and in the risk of infection for animals and humans. The present paper reviews the effects of climate and other global drivers on Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens infections in Europe and the possible implications on the transmission and control of these mosquito-borne nematodes. In the last several years, growing degree day (GDD)-based forecast models, which use wide or local scale temperature data, have been developed to predict the occurrence and seasonality of Dirofilaria in different parts of the world. All these models are based on the fact that: there is a threshold of 14 degrees C below which Dirofilaria development will not proceed; and there is a requirement of 130 GDD for larvae to reach infectivity and a maximum life expectancy of 30 days for a vector mosquito. The output of these models predicts that the summer temperatures (with peaks in July) are sufficient to facilitate extrinsic incubation of Dirofilaria even at high latitudes. The global warming projected by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change suggests that warm summers suitable for Dirofilaria transmission in Europe will be the rule in the future decades and if the actual trend of temperature increase continues, filarial infection should spread into previously infection-free areas. These factors not only favour incubation of Dirofilaria, but also impact on mosquito species. Recent findings have also demonstrated that Aedes albopictus is now considered to be an important, competent vector of Dirofilaria infections. This mosquito species could spread from southern to northern European countries in the near future, changing the epidemiological patterns of dirofilariosis both in humans and animals.
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              Changing climate and changing vector-borne disease distribution: the example of Dirofilaria in Europe.

              Climatic changes, together with an increase in the movement of dogs across Europe, have caused an increase in the geographical range of Dirofilaria infections. The present paper is focuses on northeastern European countries, where survey data have shown an increase of Dirofilaria repens infections both in animals and humans. A growing degree day-based forecast model has been developed to predict the occurrence. The model is based on evidence that there is a threshold of 14 °C below which Dirofilaria development will not proceed in mosquitoes, there is a requirement of 130 growing degree-days (GDDs) for larvae to reach infectivity, and there is a maximum life expectancy of 30 days for a mosquito vector. The output of this model predicted that the summer temperatures (with peaks in August) are sufficient to facilitate extrinsic incubation of Dirofilaria even at latitudes of 56 °N and longitudes of 39 °E. Despite the fact that both Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens have the same temperature requirement for extrinsic incubation in mosquitoes, empirical data has shown that D. repens is the main cause of dirofilarial infections in both humans and animals. Clinical signs are absent in most canine infections with D. repens. Furthermore, diagnosis is problematic and in-clinic serological tests, such as those for D. immitis, do not exist. Therefore, most infections go undiagnosed, allowing the infection to spread undetected. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Parasite
                Parasite
                parasite
                Parasite
                EDP Sciences
                1252-607X
                1776-1042
                2014
                03 March 2014
                : 21
                : ( publisher-idID: parasite/2014/01 )
                : 10
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Laboratory of Medical Zoology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, 1866 Kameino Fujisawa Kanagawa 252-0880 Japan
                [2 ] Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Public Health, 3–24–1 Hyakunincho Shinjuku Tokyo 169-0073 Japan
                [3 ] Merial Japan Limited, 3–20–2 Nishi Shinjyuku Shinjyuku Tokyo 163-1488 Japan
                [4 ] Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, 1–7–1 Kyonancho Musashino Tokyo 180-8602 Japan
                Author notes
                [* ]Corresponding author: brma12501@ 123456g.nihon-u.ac.jp
                Article
                parasite130105 10.1051/parasite/2014008
                10.1051/parasite/2014008
                3937804
                24581552
                2fd69306-18a9-489a-a278-dc3f3b9f6a1e
                © M. Oi et al., published by EDP Sciences, 2014

                This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 22 November 2013
                : 11 February 2014
                Page count
                Figures: 1, Tables: 1, Equations: 0, References: 15, Pages: 3
                Categories
                Short Note

                canine heartworm disease,chemoprophylaxis,dirofilaria immitis,dog,epidemiology

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