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      The Domestication of Artichoke and Cardoon: From Roman Times to the Genomic Age

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          Abstract

          Background

          The history of domestication of artichoke and leafy cardoon is not yet fully understood and when and where it occurred remains unknown. Evidence supports the hypothesis that wild cardoon is the wild progenitor of both these crops. Selection for large, non-spiny heads resulted in artichoke and selection for non-spiny, large stalked tender leaves resulted in leafy cardoon. The two crops differ in their reproductive system: artichoke is mostly vegetatively propagated and perennial, while leafy cardoon is seed propagated and mostly grown as an annual plant. Here, new trends in artichoke cultivation are analysed, while the consequences of these tendencies on the conservation of artichoke genetic resources are highlighted.

          Scope

          The historical and artistic records, together with recent literature on genetics and biosystematics, are examined with the aim of achieving a better understanding of the present-day knowledge on the domestication of these two crops.

          Conclusions

          Historical, linguistic and artistic records are consistent with genetic and biosystematic data and indicate that the domestication of artichoke and cardoon diverged at different times and in different places. Apparently, artichoke was domesticated in Roman times, possibly in Sicily, and spread by the Arabs during early Middle Ages. The cardoon was probably domesticated in the western Mediterranean in a later period.

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          Most cited references82

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          The population genetics of clonal and partially clonal diploids.

          The consequences of variable rates of clonal reproduction on the population genetics of neutral markers are explored in diploid organisms within a subdivided population (island model). We use both analytical and stochastic simulation approaches. High rates of clonal reproduction will positively affect heterozygosity. As a consequence, nearly twice as many alleles per locus can be maintained and population differentiation estimated as F(ST) value is strongly decreased in purely clonal populations as compared to purely sexual ones. With increasing clonal reproduction, effective population size first slowly increases and then points toward extreme values when the reproductive system tends toward strict clonality. This reflects the fact that polymorphism is protected within individuals due to fixed heterozygosity. Contrarily, genotypic diversity smoothly decreases with increasing rates of clonal reproduction. Asexual populations thus maintain higher genetic diversity at each single locus but a lower number of different genotypes. Mixed clonal/sexual reproduction is nearly indistinguishable from strict sexual reproduction as long as the proportion of clonal reproduction is not strongly predominant for all quantities investigated, except for genotypic diversities (both at individual loci and over multiple loci).
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            A Comparison between Crop Domestication, Classical Plant Breeding, and Genetic Engineering

            P. Gepts (2002)
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              Antioxidative and protective properties of extracts from leaves of the artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) against hydroperoxide-induced oxidative stress in cultured rat hepatocytes.

              Primary rat hepatocyte cultures exposed to tert-butylhydroperoxide (t-BHP) or cumene hydroperoxide were used to assess the antioxidative and protective potential of water-soluble extracts of artichoke leaves. Both hydroperoxides stimulated the production of malondialdehyde (MDA), particularly when the cells were pretreated with diethylmaleate (DEM) in order to diminish the level of cellular glutathione (GSH). Addition of artichoke extracts did not affect basal MDA production, but prevented the hydroperoxide-induced increase of MDA formation in a concentration-dependent manner when presented simultaneously or prior to the peroxides. The effective concentrations (down to 0.001 mg/ml) were well below the cytotoxic levels of the extracts which started above 1 mg/ml. The protective potential assessed by the LDH leakage assay and the MTT assay closely paralleled the reduction in MDA production and largely prevented hepatocyte necrosis induced by the hydroperoxides. The artichoke extracts did not affect the cellular level of glutathione (GSH), but diminished the loss of total GSH and the cellular leakage of GSSG resulting from exposure to t-BHP. Chlorogenic acid and cynarin accounted for only part of the antioxidative principle of the extracts which was resistant against tryptic digestion, boiling, acidification, and other treatments, but was slightly sensitive to alkalinization. These results demonstrate that artichoke extracts have a marked antioxidative and protective potential. Primary hepatocyte cultures seem suitable for identifying the constituents responsible for these effects and for elucidating their possible mode of action.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Ann Bot
                annbot
                annbot
                Annals of Botany
                Oxford University Press
                0305-7364
                1095-8290
                October 2007
                4 July 2007
                4 July 2007
                : 100
                : 5
                : 1095-1100
                Affiliations
                [1 ]simpleCNR – Institute of Plant Genetics , Via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy
                [2 ]simpleInstitute of Crop Science, University of Kassel , D-37213, Witzenhausen, Germany
                Author notes
                [* ]For correspondence. E-mail gabriella.sonnante@ 123456igv.cnr.it
                Article
                mcm127
                10.1093/aob/mcm127
                2759203
                17611191
                31855262-ff91-45ce-b1d2-4e2997c3c809
                © 2007 The Author(s)

                This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/uk/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 4 December 2006
                : 17 January 2007
                : 22 May 2007
                Categories
                Articles

                Plant science & Botany
                cardoon,domestication,cynara cardunculus,artichoke,wild progenitor,genetic resources

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