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      Antiplasmodial and Cytotoxic Activities of Extracts of Selected Medicinal Plants Used to Treat Malaria in Embu County, Kenya

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          Abstract

          Malaria is a deadly disease caused by a protozoan parasite whose mode of transmission is through a female Anopheles mosquito. It affects persons of all ages; however, pregnant mothers, young children, and the elderly suffer the most due to their dwindled immune state. The currently prescribed antimalarial drugs have been associated with adverse side effects ranging from intolerance to toxicity. Furthermore, the costs associated with conventional approach of managing malaria are arguably high especially for persons living in low-income countries, hence the need for alternative and complementary approaches. Medicinal plants offer a viable alternative because of their few associated side effects, are arguably cheaper, and are easily accessible. Based on the fact that studies involving antimalarial medicinal plants as potential sources of efficacious and cost-effective pharmacotherapies are far between, this research was designed to investigate antiplasmodial and cytotoxic activities of organic and aqueous extracts of selected plants used by Embu traditional medicine practitioners to treat malaria. The studied plants included Erythrina abyssinica (stem bark), Schkuhria pinnata (whole plant), Sterculia africana (stem bark), Terminalia brownii (leaves), Zanthoxylum chalybeum (leaves), Leonotis mollissima (leaves), Carissa edulis (leaves), Tithonia diversifolia (leaves and flowers), and Senna didymobotrya (leaves and pods). In vitro antiplasmodial activity studies of organic and water extracts were carried out against chloroquine-sensitive (D6) and chloroquine-resistance (W2) strains of Plasmodium falciparum. In vivo antiplasmodial studies were done by Peter's four-day suppression test to test for their in vivo antimalarial activity against P. berghei. Finally, cytotoxic effects and safety of the studied plant extracts were evaluated using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) rapid calorimetric assay technique. The water and methanolic extracts of T. brownii and S. africana and dichloromethane extracts of E. abyssinica, S. pinnata, and T. diversifolia leaves revealed high in vitro antiplasmodial activities (IC 50 ≤ 10  μg/ml). Further, moderate in vivo antimalarial activities were observed for water and methanolic extracts of L. mollissima and S. africana and for dichloromethane extracts of E. abyssinica and T. diversifolia leaves. In this study, aqueous extracts of T. brownii and S. africana demonstrated high antiplasmodial activity and high selectivity indices values (SI ≥ 10) and were found to be safe. It was concluded that T. brownii and S. africana aqueous extracts were potent antiplasmodial agents. Further focused studies geared towards isolation of active constituents and determination of in vivo toxicities to ascertain their safety are warranted.

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          Qinghaosu (artemisinin): an antimalarial drug from China.

          The herb Artemisia annua has been used for many centuries in Chinese traditional medicine as a treatment for fever and malaria. In 1971, Chinese chemists isolated from the leafy portions of the plant the substance responsible for its reputed medicinal action. This compound, called qinghaosu (QHS, artemisinin), is a sesquiterpene lactone that bears a peroxide grouping and, unlike most other antimalarials, lacks a nitrogen-containing heterocyclic ring system. The compound has been used successfully in several thousand malaria patients in China, including those with both chloroquine-sensitive and chloroquine-resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum. Derivatives of QHS, such as dihydroqinghaosu, artemether, and the water-soluble sodium artesunate, appear to be more potent than QHS itself. Sodium artesunate acts rapidly in restoring to consciousness comatose patients with cerebral malaria. Thus QHS and its derivatives offer promise as a totally new class of antimalarials.
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            In vitro antiplasmodial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalised in South Africa.

            The increasing prevalence and distribution of malaria has been attributed to a number of factors, one of them being the emergence and spread of drug resistant parasites. Efforts are now being directed towards the discovery and development of new chemically diverse antimalarial agents. The present study reports on the in vitro antiplasmodial activity of 134 plant taxa native to or naturalised in South Africa, representing 54 families, which were selected semi-quantitatively using weighted criteria. The plant extracts were tested for in vitro activity against a Plasmodium falciparum strain D10 using the parasite lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay. Of the 134 species assayed, 49% showed promising antiplasmodial activity (IC(50)< or = 10 microg/ml), while 17% were found to be highly active (IC(50)< or = 5 microg/ml). Several plant species and genera were shown for the first time to possess in vitro antiplasmodial activity. These results support a rational rather than random approach to the selection of antiplasmodial screening candidates, and identify a number of promising taxa for further investigation as plant-based antimalarial agents.
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              In vivo antimalarial activity, toxicity and phytochemical screening of selected antimalarial plants.

              Malaria continues to kill over a million people each year and in many populations affected by malaria, conventional drugs are often unaffordable or inaccessible. Historically, plants have been a prominent source of antimalarial drugs. Those plants currently used by indigenous people to treat malaria should be documented and investigated as potential sources of new antimalarial drugs.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                J Parasitol Res
                J Parasitol Res
                JPR
                Journal of Parasitology Research
                Hindawi
                2090-0023
                2090-0031
                2020
                7 July 2020
                : 2020
                : 8871375
                Affiliations
                1School of Pure and Applied Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences, Mount Kenya University, P.O. Box 342-01000 Thika, Kenya
                2School of Medicine, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Mount Kenya University, P.O. Box 342-01000 Thika, Kenya
                3School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacognosy, Mount Kenya University, P.O. Box 342-01000 Thika, Kenya
                4School of Postgraduate Studies and Research, Mount Kenya University, P.O. Box 342-01000 Thika, Kenya
                Author notes

                Academic Editor: Bernard Marchand

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1692-596X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5604-9987
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8433-1477
                Article
                10.1155/2020/8871375
                7364238
                32724666
                31eafef5-f5a4-442f-8b5a-86ae98ac8ce1
                Copyright © 2020 Bibianne Waiganjo et al.

                This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 31 March 2020
                : 27 May 2020
                : 3 June 2020
                Categories
                Research Article

                Parasitology
                Parasitology

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