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      The State of the World's Mangrove Forests: Past, Present, and Future

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          Abstract

          Intertidal mangrove forests are a dynamic ecosystem experiencing rapid changes in extent and habitat quality over geological history, today and into the future. Climate and sea level have drastically altered mangrove distribution since their appearance in the geological record ∼75 million years ago (Mya), through to the Holocene. In contrast, contemporary mangrove dynamics are driven primarily by anthropogenic threats, including pollution, overextraction, and conversion to aquaculture and agriculture. Deforestation rates have declined in the past decade, but the future of mangroves is uncertain; new deforestation frontiers are opening, particularly in Southeast Asia and West Africa, despite international conservation policies and ambitious global targets for rehabilitation. In addition, geological and climatic processes such as sea-level rise that were important over geological history will continue to influence global mangrove distribution in the future. Recommendations are given to reframe mangrove conservation, with a view to improving the state of mangroves in the future.

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          Most cited references107

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          Mangrove Forests: One of the World's Threatened Major Tropical Environments

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            Present state and future of the world's mangrove forests

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              Global Changes in Postglacial Sea Level: A Numerical Calculation

              The sea-level rise due to ice-sheet melting since the last glacial maximum was not uniform everywhere because of the deformation of the Earth's surface and its geoid by changing ice and water loads. A numerical model is employed to calculate global changes in relative sea level on a spherical viscoelastic Earth as northern hemisphere ice sheets melt and fill the ocean basins with meltwater. Predictions for the past 16,000 years explain a large proportion of the global variance in the sea-level record, particularly during the Holocene. Results indicate that the oceans can be divided into six zones, each of which is characterized by a specific form of the relative sea-level curve. In four of these zones emerged beaches are predicted, and these may form even at considerable distance from the ice sheets themselves. In the remaining zones submergence is dominant, and no emerged beaches are expected. The close agreement of these predictions with the data suggests that, contrary to the beliefs of many, no net change in ocean volume has occurred during the past 5000 years. Predictions for localities close to the ice sheets are the most in error, suggesting that slight modifications of the assumed melting history and/or the rheological model of the Earth's interior are necessary.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Annual Review of Environment and Resources
                Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour.
                Annual Reviews
                1543-5938
                1545-2050
                October 17 2019
                October 17 2019
                : 44
                : 1
                : 89-115
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Geography, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117570;
                [2 ]Mangrove Specialist Group, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
                [3 ]School of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia
                [4 ]School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
                [5 ]Wetland and Aquatic Research Center, United States Geological Survey, Lafayette, Louisiana 70506, USA
                [6 ]Department of Geography and Geosciences, Salisbury University, Salisbury, Maryland 21801, USA
                [7 ]Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
                [8 ]Department of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth SY23 3DB, United Kingdom
                [9 ]Zoological Society of London, Iloilo City 5000, Philippines
                [10 ]Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape, Bellville 7535, South Africa
                [11 ]School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
                Article
                10.1146/annurev-environ-101718-033302
                33a0582c-c6f9-47e4-8e57-89faea1ff589
                © 2019
                History

                Earth & Environmental sciences,Environmental economics & Politics,Environmental change,Environmental studies,Environmental management, Policy & Planning,General environmental science

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