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      A phytosociological analysis and description of wetland vegetation and ecological factors associated with locations of high mortality for the 2010-11 Rift Valley fever outbreak in South Africa

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          Abstract

          Rift Valley fever (RVF) is endemic in Africa and parts of the Middle East. It is an emerging zoonotic disease threat to veterinary and public health. Outbreaks of the disease have severe socio-economic impacts. RVF virus emergence is closely associated with specific endorheic wetlands that are utilized by the virus’ mosquito vectors. Limited botanical vegetation surveys had been published with regard to RVF virus (RVFV) ecology. We report on a phytosociological classification, analysis and description of wetland vegetation and related abiotic parameters to elucidate factors possibly associated with the 2010–2011 RVFV disease outbreak in South Africa. The study sites were located in the western Free State and adjacent Northern Cape covering an area of ~40,000 km 2 with wetlands associated with high RVF mortality rates in livestock. Other study sites included areas where no RVF activity was reported during the 2010–11 RVF outbreak. A total of 129 plots (30 m 2) were selected where a visible difference could be seen in the wetland and upland vegetation. The Braun-Blanquet method was used for plant sampling. Classification was done using modified Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis. The vegetation analysis resulted in the identification of eight plant communities, seven sub-communities and two variants. Indirect ordination was carried out using CANOCO to investigate the relationship between species and wetland ecology. The study also identified 5 categories of wetlands including anthropogenic wetlands. Locations of reported RVF cases overlapped sites characterized by high clay-content soils and specific wetland vegetation. These findings indicate ecological and environmental parameters that represent preferred breeding habitat for RVFV competent mosquito vectors.

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          African Rainfall Climatology Version 2 for Famine Early Warning Systems

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            An Outbreak of Rift Valley Fever in Northeastern Kenya, 1997-98

            In December 1997, 170 hemorrhagic fever-associated deaths were reported in Carissa District, Kenya. Laboratory testing identified evidence of acute Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV). Of the 171 persons enrolled in a cross-sectional study, 31(18%) were anti-RVFV immunoglobulin (Ig) M positive. An age-adjusted IgM antibody prevalence of 14% was estimated for the district. We estimate approximately 27,500 infections occurred in Garissa District, making this the largest recorded outbreak of RVFV in East Africa. In multivariate analysis, contact with sheep body fluids and sheltering livestock in one’s home were significantly associated with infection. Direct contact with animals, particularly contact with sheep body fluids, was the most important modifiable risk factor for RVFV infection. Public education during epizootics may reduce human illness and deaths associated with future outbreaks.
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              The Karoo basins of south-central Africa

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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Investigation
                Role: InvestigationRole: ResourcesRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: ResourcesRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                20 February 2018
                2018
                : 13
                : 2
                : e0191585
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Cuyahoga County Board of Health, Parma, Cuyahoga County, Ohio, United States of America
                [2 ] Department of Botany, University of the Free State, Republic of South Africa
                [3 ] EcoHealth Alliance, New York, NY, United States of America
                [4 ] Centre for Emerging, Zoonotic and Parasitic Diseases, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Sandringham, South Africa
                [5 ] NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Biospheric Science Laboratory & Universities Space Research Association, Greenbelt, MD, United States of America
                [6 ] ExecuVet, Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa
                [7 ] Soil- and Crop- and Climate Sciences Department, University of the Free State, Free State, Republic of South Africa
                Nanjing Agricultural University, CHINA
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: ExecuVet is a privately run South African veterinary and scientific consulting company that is on contract to EcoHealth Alliance to conduct the day-to-day field work on the larger Understanding Rift Valley Fever in Republic of South Africa as funded by DTRA (and reported in the funding statement). This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.

                ‡ These authors also contributed equally to this work.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9790-3120
                Article
                PONE-D-17-19963
                10.1371/journal.pone.0191585
                5819772
                29462214
                344c4b78-6a44-4df0-bbf5-c68cb4219968

                This is an open access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication.

                History
                : 24 May 2017
                : 8 January 2018
                Page count
                Figures: 8, Tables: 3, Pages: 26
                Funding
                Funded by: Defence Threat reduction Agency
                Award ID: Grant # HDTRA1-14-1-0029
                This work was supported by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Grant Number: HDTRA1-14-1-0029, DTRA URL: http://www.dtra.mil/. The only funding that was used or contributed to this study was provided via a grant by DTRA. The funding agency, DTRA, did not play a role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript and only provided financial support in the form of authors' salaries and/or research materials. The specific roles of authors are articulated in the ‘author contributions’ section.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Ecology and Environmental Sciences
                Aquatic Environments
                Freshwater Environments
                Wetlands
                Earth Sciences
                Marine and Aquatic Sciences
                Aquatic Environments
                Freshwater Environments
                Wetlands
                Earth Sciences
                Geomorphology
                Topography
                Landforms
                Wetlands
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Infectious Diseases
                Disease Vectors
                Insect Vectors
                Mosquitoes
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Species Interactions
                Disease Vectors
                Insect Vectors
                Mosquitoes
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Eukaryota
                Animals
                Invertebrates
                Arthropoda
                Insects
                Mosquitoes
                Medicine and health sciences
                Tropical diseases
                Neglected tropical diseases
                Rift Valley fever
                Medicine and health sciences
                Infectious diseases
                Viral diseases
                Rift Valley fever
                Medicine and health sciences
                Infectious diseases
                Zoonoses
                Rift Valley fever
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Eukaryota
                Plants
                Grasses
                Biology and life sciences
                Organisms
                Viruses
                RNA viruses
                Bunyaviruses
                Rift Valley fever virus
                Biology and life sciences
                Microbiology
                Medical microbiology
                Microbial pathogens
                Viral pathogens
                Bunyaviruses
                Rift Valley fever virus
                Medicine and health sciences
                Pathology and laboratory medicine
                Pathogens
                Microbial pathogens
                Viral pathogens
                Bunyaviruses
                Rift Valley fever virus
                Biology and life sciences
                Organisms
                Viruses
                Viral pathogens
                Bunyaviruses
                Rift Valley fever virus
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Agriculture
                Livestock
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Ecology
                Community Ecology
                Ecology and Environmental Sciences
                Ecology
                Community Ecology
                Ecology and Environmental Sciences
                Soil Science
                Soil Ecology
                Custom metadata
                All data are within the paper and the Supporting Information files.

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