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      Diversity and carbon storage across the tropical forest biome

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      a , 1 , 1 , 1 , 2 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 3 , 4 , 2 , 1 , 1 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 3 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 1 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 1 , 34 , 35 , 7 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 46 , 40 , 41 , 1 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 7 , 47 , 48 , 1 , 49 , 22 , 50 , 51 , 1 , 1 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 1 , 63 , 47 , 64 , 65 , 18 , 18 , 66 , 67 , 18 , 63 , 47 , 68 , 69 , 7 , 7 , 70 , 33 , 71 , 72 , 1 , 73 , 37 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 21 , 77 , 4 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 8 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 79 , 86 , 3 , 87 , 37 , 88 , 71 , 89 , 6 , 81 , 70 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 3
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          Abstract

          Tropical forests are global centres of biodiversity and carbon storage. Many tropical countries aspire to protect forest to fulfil biodiversity and climate mitigation policy targets, but the conservation strategies needed to achieve these two functions depend critically on the tropical forest tree diversity-carbon storage relationship. Assessing this relationship is challenging due to the scarcity of inventories where carbon stocks in aboveground biomass and species identifications have been simultaneously and robustly quantified. Here, we compile a unique pan-tropical dataset of 360 plots located in structurally intact old-growth closed-canopy forest, surveyed using standardised methods, allowing a multi-scale evaluation of diversity-carbon relationships in tropical forests. Diversity-carbon relationships among all plots at 1 ha scale across the tropics are absent, and within continents are either weak (Asia) or absent (Amazonia, Africa). A weak positive relationship is detectable within 1 ha plots, indicating that diversity effects in tropical forests may be scale dependent. The absence of clear diversity-carbon relationships at scales relevant to conservation planning means that carbon-centred conservation strategies will inevitably miss many high diversity ecosystems. As tropical forests can have any combination of tree diversity and carbon stocks both require explicit consideration when optimising policies to manage tropical carbon and biodiversity.

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          lavaan: AnRPackage for Structural Equation Modeling

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            Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity.

            The most unique feature of Earth is the existence of life, and the most extraordinary feature of life is its diversity. Approximately 9 million types of plants, animals, protists and fungi inhabit the Earth. So, too, do 7 billion people. Two decades ago, at the first Earth Summit, the vast majority of the world's nations declared that human actions were dismantling the Earth's ecosystems, eliminating genes, species and biological traits at an alarming rate. This observation led to the question of how such loss of biological diversity will alter the functioning of ecosystems and their ability to provide society with the goods and services needed to prosper.
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              Towards a worldwide wood economics spectrum.

              Wood performs several essential functions in plants, including mechanically supporting aboveground tissue, storing water and other resources, and transporting sap. Woody tissues are likely to face physiological, structural and defensive trade-offs. How a plant optimizes among these competing functions can have major ecological implications, which have been under-appreciated by ecologists compared to the focus they have given to leaf function. To draw together our current understanding of wood function, we identify and collate data on the major wood functional traits, including the largest wood density database to date (8412 taxa), mechanical strength measures and anatomical features, as well as clade-specific features such as secondary chemistry. We then show how wood traits are related to one another, highlighting functional trade-offs, and to ecological and demographic plant features (growth form, growth rate, latitude, ecological setting). We suggest that, similar to the manifold that tree species leaf traits cluster around the 'leaf economics spectrum', a similar 'wood economics spectrum' may be defined. We then discuss the biogeography, evolution and biogeochemistry of the spectrum, and conclude by pointing out the major gaps in our current knowledge of wood functional traits.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Sci Rep
                Sci Rep
                Scientific Reports
                Nature Publishing Group
                2045-2322
                17 January 2017
                2017
                : 7
                : 39102
                Affiliations
                [1 ]School of Geography, University of Leeds , Leeds, UK
                [2 ]Department of Geography, University College London , London, UK
                [3 ]Plant Systematic and Ecology Laboratory, University of Yaounde I , Cameroon
                [4 ]Université Paul Sabatier CNRS , Toulouse, France
                [5 ]United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre , Cambridge, UK
                [6 ]Jardín Botánico de Missouri , Oxapampa, Perú
                [7 ]Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco , Cusco, Perú
                [8 ]CIFOR , Bogor, Indonesia
                [9 ]College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University , Cairns, Australia
                [10 ]Naturalis Biodiversity Center , Leiden, Netherlands
                [11 ]Ecology and Biodiversity Group, Utrecht University , Utrecht, Netherlands
                [12 ]Agence Nationale des Parcs Nationaux , Libreville, Gabon
                [13 ]Institut de Recherche en Ecologie Tropicale , Libreville, Gabon
                [14 ]School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling , Stirling, UK
                [15 ]Mensuration Unit, Forestry Commission of Ghana , Kumasi, Ghana
                [16 ]Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University , Japan
                [17 ]Instituto de Biodiversidade e Floresta, Universidade Federal do Oeste do Pará , Santarém, Brazil
                [18 ]Universidade do Estado de Mato Grosso , Nova Xavantina, Brazil
                [19 ]Center for Tropical Conservation, Duke University , Durham, NC, USA
                [20 ]Red para la Mitigación y Adaptación al Cambio Climático de la UNAD , Bogota, Colombia
                [21 ]Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia , Manaus, Brazil
                [22 ]Geography, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter , Exeter, UK
                [23 ]Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University , Cambridge, MA, USA
                [24 ]Programa de Ciencias del Agro y el Mar, Herbario Universitario , Barinas, Venezuela
                [25 ]CIFOR , Conakry, Guinea
                [26 ]Centre for Ecology and Hydrology , Penicuik, UK
                [27 ]International Center for Tropical Botany, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University , Miami, FL, USA
                [28 ]UMR AMAP, IRD , Montpellier, France
                [29 ]UPR BSEF, CIRAD , Montpellier, France
                [30 ]The University of Edinburgh, School of GeoSciences , Edinburgh, UK
                [31 ]Biodiversity and Landscape Unit, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Université de Liège , Gembloux, Belgium
                [32 ]INRA, UMR EEF , Champenoux, France
                [33 ]Forest Ecology and Forest Management group, Wageningen University , Wageningen, The Netherlands
                [34 ]Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Projeto Dinâmica Biológica de Fragmentos Florestais , Manaus, Brazil
                [35 ]Herbario Alfredo Paredes, Universidad Central del Ecuador , Quito, Ecuador
                [36 ]Rougier-Gabon , Libreville, Gabon
                [37 ]Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University , Durham, NC, USA
                [38 ]Jardín Botánico Joaquín Antonio Uribe , Medellín, Colombia
                [39 ]Inventory & Monitoring Program, National Park Service , Fredericksburg, VA, USA
                [40 ]Andes to Amazon Biodiversity Program , Puerto Maldonado, Perú
                [41 ]Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Perúana , Iquitos, Perú
                [42 ]Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute , Washington, DC, USA
                [43 ]Landscape Ecology and Vegetal Production Systems Unit, Universite Libre de Bruxelles , Brussels, Belgium
                [44 ]Department of Botany & Plant Physiology, Faculty of Science, University of Buea , Buea, Cameroon
                [45 ]Forest Ressources Management, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liege , Belgium
                [46 ]Smithsonian Institution , Washington, DC, USA
                [47 ]Wildlife Conservation Society-DR Congo, Kinshasa I , Democratic Republic of Congo
                [48 ]Centre de Formation et de Recherche en Conservation Forestiere (CEFRECOF) , Democratic Republic of Congo
                [49 ]Institute of Biology, UNICAMP , Campinas, Brazil
                [50 ]Centro de Ecologia, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientificas , Caracas, Venezuela
                [51 ]Institut für Geographie und Regionalforschung, Geoökologie, University of Vienna , Vienna, Austria
                [52 ]Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute , Panamá, Republic of Panama
                [53 ]Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh , Edinburgh, UK
                [54 ]Lukuru Wildlife Research Foundation , Kinshasa, Gombe, Democratic Republic of Congo
                [55 ]Division of Vertebrate Zoology, Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History , New Haven, CT, USA
                [56 ]Herbarium Bogoriense, Indonesian Institute of Sciences , Bogor, Indonesia
                [57 ]Integrative Research Center, The Field Museum , Chicago, IL, USA
                [58 ]Tropical Peat Research Institute, Biological Research Division, Malaysian Palm Oil Board , Selangor, Malaysia
                [59 ]Kyoto University , Kyoto, Japan
                [60 ]Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Sciences and College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University , Cairns, Australia
                [61 ]Wildlife Conservation Society , Kampala, Uganda
                [62 ]Department of Environmental Science and Policy, George Mason University , Fairfax, VA, USA
                [63 ]Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques, Université de Kisangani , Kisangani, Democratic Republic of Congo
                [64 ]School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford , Oxford, UK
                [65 ]Universidade Federal de Goiás , Goiânia, Brazil
                [66 ]Flamingo Land Ltd , Kirby Misperton, UK
                [67 ]CIRCLE, Environment Department, University of York , York, UK
                [68 ]Salonga National Park , Kinshasa I, DR Congo
                [69 ]Sabah Forestry Department , Sabah, Malaysia
                [70 ]Universidad Autónoma del Beni , Riberalta, Bolivia
                [71 ]Instituto Boliviano de Investigación Forestal , Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia
                [72 ]CIRAD, UMR Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane , Sinamary, French Guiana, France
                [73 ]Natural History Museum, University of Oslo , Oslo, Norway
                [74 ]Department of Biology, Boston University , Boston, MA, USA
                [75 ]CIFOR , Bogor, Indonesia
                [76 ]Southern Swedish Forest Research Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences , Alnarp, Sweden
                [77 ]Bureau Waardenburg , The Netherlands
                [78 ]Fundación Con Vida , Medellín, Colombia
                [79 ]Carboforexpert , Geneva, Switzerland
                [80 ]Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam , Brunei, Darussalam
                [81 ]Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi , Belém, Brazil
                [82 ]FORDA, The Ministry of Forestry and Environment , Bogor, Indonesia
                [83 ]Norwegian University of Life Sciences , Aas, Norway
                [84 ]GeoIS , Quito, Ecuador
                [85 ]Museu Universitário, Universidade Federal do Acre , Brazil
                [86 ]World Wildlife Fund , Washington, DC, USA
                [87 ]CTFS-AA Asia Program, Harvard University , Cambridge, MA, USA
                [88 ]Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto , Toronto, Canada
                [89 ]Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies , New Haven, CT, USA
                [90 ]Centro de Investigación y Promoción del Campesinado - Regional Norte Amazónico , Riberalta, Bolivia
                [91 ]School of Earth Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, Northern Arizona University , Flagstaff AZ, USA
                [92 ]Biological Sciences, University of Southampton , Southampton, UK
                [93 ]School of Environment, Natural Resources and Geography, Bangor University , Bangor, UK
                Author notes
                [*]

                These authors contributed equally to this work.

                Article
                srep39102
                10.1038/srep39102
                5240619
                28094794
                3454851c-f60a-4957-b771-77986b7fa442
                Copyright © 2017, The Author(s)

                This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

                History
                : 15 July 2016
                : 26 October 2016
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