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      Potential Role of Serum and Urinary Biomarkers in Diagnosis and Prognosis of Diabetic Nephropathy

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          Abstract

          Purpose of review:

          Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a progressive kidney disease caused by alterations in kidney architecture and function, and constitutes one of the leading causes of end-stage renal disease (ESRD). The purpose of this review is to summarize the state of the art of the DN-biomarker field with a focus on the new strategies that enhance the sensitivity of biomarkers to predict patients who will develop DN or are at risk of progressing to ESRD.

          Objective:

          In this review, we provide a description of the pathophysiology of DN and propose a panel of novel putative biomarkers associated with DN pathophysiology that have been increasingly investigated for diagnosis, to predict disease progression or to provide efficient personal treatment.

          Methods:

          We performed a review of the literature with PubMed and Google Scholar to collect baseline data about the pathophysiology of DN and biomarkers associated. We focused our research on new and emerging biomarkers of DN.

          Key findings:

          In this review, we summarized the critical signaling pathways and biological processes involved in DN and highlighted the pathogenic mediators of this disease. We next proposed a large review of the major advances that have been made in identifying new biomarkers which are more sensitive and reliable compared with currently used biomarkers. This includes information about emergent biomarkers such as functional noncoding RNAs, microRNAs, long noncoding RNAs, exosomes, and microparticles.

          Limitations:

          Despite intensive strategies and constant investigation, no current single treatment has been able to reverse or at least mitigate the progression of DN, or reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with this disease. Major difficulties probably come from the renal disease being heterogeneous among the patients.

          Implications:

          Expanding the proteomics screening, including oxidative stress and inflammatory markers, along with metabolomics approaches may further improve the prognostic value and help in identifying the patients with diabetes who are at high risk of developing kidney diseases.

          Abrégé

          La néphropathie diabétique (ND) est une affection évolutive causée par des modifications dans la physionomie et la fonction des reins. Elle constitue l’une des principales causes d’insuffisance rénale terminale (IRT). L’objectif de cette revue est de faire état des plus récentes connaissances au sujet des biomarqueurs de la ND, en mettant l’accent sur les nouvelles stratégies qui augmentent la sensibilité des biomarqueurs à dépister les patients susceptibles de développer la ND ou qui courent le risque de voir leur état évoluer vers l’insuffisance rénale terminale.

          Objectif de la revue:

          Dans cette revue, nous fournissons d’abord une description de la physiopathologie de la ND. Nous proposons ensuite un panel de nouveaux biomarqueurs putatifs associés à la physiopathologie de la ND, et qui ont de plus en plus été étudiés dans le but d’établir le diagnostic de la maladie, de prédire son évolution ou de fournir un traitement individuel efficace.

          Méthodologie:

          Nous avons procédé à une revue de la littérature sur PubMed et Google Scholar afin de recueillir des données de base au sujet de la physiopathologie de la ND ainsi que sur les biomarqueurs qui y sont associés. Nous avons concentré nos recherches sur les biomarqueurs nouvellement identifiés ou émergents.

          Principales conclusions:

          La revue fait un résumé des voies de signalisation essentielles et des processus biologiques impliqués dans l’évolution de la ND, en plus de mettre en évidence les médiateurs pathogènes de la maladie. Nous faisons également état des avancées majeures réalisées dans l’identification de nouveaux biomarqueurs plus sensibles et plus fiables que ceux qui sont utilisés à l’heure actuelle. Enfin, cette revue collige des renseignements au sujet des biomarqueurs émergents tels que les ARN non codants fonctionnels, les microARN, les longs ARN non codants, les exosomes et les microparticules.

          Limites de la revue:

          À ce jour, malgré des stratégies de plus en plus pointues et le fait que la recherche soit en constante progression, aucun traitement unique n’a réussi à inverser ou même à freiner l’évolution de la néphropathie diabétique, ni à réduire la morbidité et la mortalité associées à cette maladie. L’hétérogénéité des maladies rénales observée dans la population des personnes atteintes contribue probablement aux difficultés rencontrées.

          Conclusions:

          La généralisation du dépistage par la protéomique, notamment par la mesure du stress oxydatif et des marqueurs inflammatoires, ainsi que l’approche métabolomique pourraient contribuer à améliorer la valeur pronostique et aider à cibler les patients atteints de diabète qui courent un risque élevé de développer de l’insuffisance rénale.

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          Most cited references173

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          Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine.

          A formula has been developed to predict creatinine clearance (Ccr) from serum creatinine (Scr) in adult males: (see article)(15% less in females). Derivation included the relationship found between age and 24-hour creatinine excretion/kg in 249 patients aged 18-92. Values for Ccr were predicted by this formula and four other methods and the results compared with the means of two 24-hour Ccr's measured in 236 patients. The above formula gave a correlation coefficient between predicted and mean measured Ccr's of 0.83; on average, the difference predicted and mean measured values was no greater than that between paired clearances. Factors for age and body weight must be included for reasonable prediction.
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            Uric acid provides an antioxidant defense in humans against oxidant- and radical-caused aging and cancer: a hypothesis.

            During primate evolution, a major factor in lengthening life-span and decreasing age-specific cancer rates may have been improved protective mechanisms against oxygen radicals. We propose that one of these protective systems is plasma uric acid, the level of which increased markedly during primate evolution as a consequence of a series of mutations. Uric acid is a powerful antioxidant and is a scavenger of singlet oxygen and radicals. We show that, at physiological concentrations, urate reduces the oxo-heme oxidant formed by peroxide reaction with hemoglobin, protects erythrocyte ghosts against lipid peroxidation, and protects erythrocytes from peroxidative damage leading to lysis. Urate is about as effective an antioxidant as ascorbate in these experiments. Urate is much more easily oxidized than deoxynucleosides by singlet oxygen and is destroyed by hydroxyl radicals at a comparable rate. The plasma urate levels in humans (about 300 microM) is considerably higher than the ascorbate level, making it one of the major antioxidants in humans. Previous work on urate reported in the literature supports our experiments and interpretations, although the findings were not discussed in a physiological context.
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              Inflammation: the link between insulin resistance, obesity and diabetes.

              Recent data have revealed that the plasma concentration of inflammatory mediators, such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), is increased in the insulin resistant states of obesity and type 2 diabetes, raising questions about the mechanisms underlying inflammation in these two conditions. It is also intriguing that an increase in inflammatory mediators or indices predicts the future development of obesity and diabetes. Two mechanisms might be involved in the pathogenesis of inflammation. Firstly, glucose and macronutrient intake causes oxidative stress and inflammatory changes. Chronic overnutrition (obesity) might thus be a proinflammatory state with oxidative stress. Secondly, the increased concentrations of TNF-alpha and IL-6, associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes, might interfere with insulin action by suppressing insulin signal transduction. This might interfere with the anti-inflammatory effect of insulin, which in turn might promote inflammation.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Can J Kidney Health Dis
                Can J Kidney Health Dis
                CJK
                spcjk
                Canadian Journal of Kidney Health and Disease
                SAGE Publications (Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA )
                2054-3581
                22 May 2017
                2017
                : 4
                : 2054358117705371
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Centre de recherche, Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Québec, Canada
                [2 ]Department of Biochemistry, Goodman Cancer Research Centre, McGill University, Montreal, Québec, Canada
                [3 ]St. Michael’s Hospital, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
                Author notes
                [*]Oraly Sanchez-Ferras, Department of Biochemistry, Goodman Cancer Research Centre, McGill University, 1160 Pine Avenue, Office: Room 408, Montreal, Québec, Canada H3A 1A3. Email: oraly.sanchez-ferras@ 123456mcgill.ca
                Article
                10.1177_2054358117705371
                10.1177/2054358117705371
                5461910
                28616250
                34f5ea96-e96c-4c21-b50a-fef841e19d78
                © The Author(s) 2017

                This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 License ( http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access page( https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).

                History
                : 15 July 2016
                : 17 February 2017
                Funding
                Funded by: McGill Integrated Cancer Research Training (MICRTP) fellowship, ;
                Funded by: Kidney Foundation of Canada, FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000191;
                Award ID: Krescent
                Funded by: Heart and Stroke/Richard Lewar Center of Excellence Fellowship Award, ;
                Categories
                Narrative Review
                Custom metadata
                January-December 2017

                diabetic nephropathy,end-stage renal disease,albuminuria,tubular damage,glomerular damage,biomarkers

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