An overview of microbial mitigation strategies for acrylamide: Lactic acid bacteria, yeast, and cell-free extracts

This review provides a framework contributing to the risk assessment of acrylamide in food. It is based on the outcome of the ILSI Europe FOSIE process, a risk assessment framework for chemicals in foods and adds to the overall framework by focusing especially on exposure assessment and internal dose assessment of acrylamide in food. Since the finding that acrylamide is formed in food during heat processing and preparation of food, much effort has been (and still is being) put into understanding its mechanism of formation, on developing analytical methods and determination of levels in food, and on evaluation of its toxicity and potential toxicity and potential human health consequences. Although several exposure estimations have been proposed, a systematic review of key information relevant to exposure assessment is currently lacking. The European and North American branches of the International Life Sciences Institute, ILSI, discussed critical aspects of exposure assessment, parameters influencing the outcome of exposure assessment and summarised data relevant to the acrylamide exposure assessment to aid the risk characterisation process. This paper reviews the data on acrylamide levels in food including its formation and analytical methods, the determination of human consumption patterns, dietary intake of the general population, estimation of maximum intake levels and identification of groups of potentially high intakes. Possible options and consequences of mitigation efforts to reduce exposure are discussed. Furthermore the association of intake levels with biomarkers of exposure and internal dose, considering aspects of bioavailability, is reviewed, and a physiologically-based toxicokinetic (PBTK) model is described that provides a good description of the kinetics of acrylamide in the rat. Each of the sections concludes with a summary of remaining gaps and uncertainties.

Acrylamide is a contaminant that can form in certain plant-based foods during high-temperature cooking. From 2011-2015, the Food and Drug Administration conducted extensive sampling and analyses of acrylamide in foods, as a follow-up to surveys from 2002-2006. We compared acrylamide occurrence data and exposure estimates based on 2011-2015 data with data and exposure estimates from 2002-2006. Acrylamide levels in selected food categories generally did not decrease significantly in 2011-2015 compared with 2002-2006. However, significant decreases in acrylamide concentrations were observed for potato chips and crackers, which may be related to the availability and use of mitigation techniques for reducing acrylamide in foods. Mean dietary intake for those 2 years and older based on 2011-2015 data was 0.36 µg/kg bw/day, comparable to the 0.44 µg/kg bw/day reported by FDA in 2006. French fries and potato products, breakfast cereal, cookies, potato chips, and crackers continue to be the greatest contributors to dietary intake of acrylamide. Infant snack foods were identified as an important contributor to acrylamide intake relative to infant jarred foods. The continued presence of acrylamide in food suggests that manufacturers and governments should continue to pursue efforts to reduce acrylamide in foods that are important contributors to acrylamide intake.