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      The Responders’ Gender Stereotypes Modulate the Strategic Decision-Making of Proposers Playing the Ultimatum Game

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          Abstract

          Despite the wealth of studies investigating factors affecting decisions, not much is known about the impact of stereotypical beliefs on strategic economic decision-making. In the present study, we used the ultimatum game paradigm to investigate how participants playing as proposer modulate their strategic economic behavior, according to their game counterparts’ stereotypical identity (i.e., responders). The latter were introduced to the participants using occupational role nouns stereotypically marked with gender paired with feminine or masculine proper names (e.g., linguist-Anna; economist-David; economist-Cristina; linguist-Leonardo). When playing with male-stereotyped responders, proposers quickly applied the equity rule, behaving fairly, while they adopted a strategic behavior with responders characterized by female stereotypes. They were also longer to make their offers to female than to male responders but both kinds of responders received comparable offers, suggesting a greater cognitive effort to treat females as equally as males. The present study explicitly demonstrates that gender stereotypical information affect strategic economic decision-making and highlights a possible evolution of gender discrimination into a more insidious discrimination toward individuals with female characteristics.

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          Prescriptive Gender Stereotypes and Backlash Toward Agentic Women

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            Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: the costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management.

            Three experiments tested and extended recent theory regarding motivational influences on impression formation (S. T. Fiske & S. L. Neuberg, 1990; J. L. Hilton & J. M. Darley, 1991) in the context of an impression management dilemma that women face: Self-promotion may be instrumental for managing a competent impression, yet women who self-promote may suffer social reprisals for violating gender prescriptions to be modest. Experiment 1 investigated the influence of perceivers' goals on processes that inhibit stereotypical thinking, and reactions to counterstereotypical behavior. Experiments 2-3 extended these findings by including male targets. For female targets, self-promotion led to higher competence ratings but incurred social attraction and hireability costs unless perceivers were outcome-dependent males. For male targets, self-effacement decreased competence and hireability ratings, though its effects on social attraction were inconsistent.
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              Using the implicit association test to measure self-esteem and self-concept.

              Experiment 1 used the Implicit Association Test (IAT; A. G. Greenwald, D. E. McGhee, & J. L. K. Schwartz, 1998) to measure self-esteem by assessing automatic associations of self with positive or negative valence. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that two IAT measures defined a factor that was distinct from, but weakly correlated with, a factor defined by standard explicit (self-report) measures of self-esteem. Experiment 2 tested known-groups validity of two IAT gender self-concept measures. Compared with well-established explicit measures, the IAT measures revealed triple the difference in measured masculinity-femininity between men and women. Again, CFA revealed construct divergence between implicit and explicit measures. Experiment 3 assessed the self-esteem IAT's validity in predicting cognitive reactions to success and failure. High implicit self-esteem was associated in the predicted fashion with buffering against adverse effects of failure on two of four measures.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Psychol
                Front Psychol
                Front. Psychol.
                Frontiers in Psychology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1664-1078
                25 January 2016
                2016
                : 7
                : 12
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia Modena, Italy
                [2] 2Institut Supérieur de l’Aéronautique et de l’Espace Toulouse, France
                Author notes

                Edited by: Lisa Von Stockhausen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany

                Reviewed by: Xiaolin Zhou, Peking University, China; Johanna Alexopoulos, Medical University of Vienna, Austria

                *Correspondence: Eve F. Fabre, Eve.FABRE@ 123456isae.fr

                This article was submitted to Cognition, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology

                Article
                10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00012
                4724784
                26834684
                3626d204-5092-44ce-9efe-c46c8364abaf
                Copyright © 2016 Fabre, Causse, Pesciarelli and Cacciari.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 17 July 2015
                : 05 January 2016
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 2, Equations: 0, References: 54, Pages: 9, Words: 0
                Funding
                Funded by: Seventh Framework Programme 10.13039/501100004963
                Award ID: 237907
                Categories
                Psychology
                Original Research

                Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry
                ultimatum game,gender stereotypes,proposer,strategic decision-making

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