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      Microbial response to acid stress: mechanisms and applications

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          Abstract

          Microorganisms encounter acid stress during multiple bioprocesses. Microbial species have therefore developed a variety of resistance mechanisms. The damage caused by acidic environments is mitigated through the maintenance of pH homeostasis, cell membrane integrity and fluidity, metabolic regulation, and macromolecule repair. The acid tolerance mechanisms can be used to protect probiotics against gastric acids during the process of food intake, and can enhance the biosynthesis of organic acids. The combination of systems and synthetic biology technologies offers new and wide prospects for the industrial applications of microbial acid tolerance mechanisms. In this review, we summarize acid stress response mechanisms of microbial cells, illustrate the application of microbial acid tolerance in industry, and prospect the introduction of systems and synthetic biology to further explore the acid tolerance mechanisms and construct a microbial cell factory for valuable chemicals.

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          Escherichia coli acid resistance: tales of an amateur acidophile.

          John Foster (2004)
          Gastrointestinal pathogens are faced with an extremely acidic environment. Within moments, a pathogen such as Escherichia coli O157:H7 can move from the nurturing pH 7 environment of a hamburger to the harsh pH 2 milieu of the stomach. Surprisingly, certain microorganisms that grow at neutral pH have elegantly regulated systems that enable survival during excursions into acidic environments. The best-characterized acid-resistance system is found in E. coli.
          Article 0 comments Cited 240 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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            Life in acid: pH homeostasis in acidophiles.

            Mark Dopson, Craig Baker-Austin (2007)
            Microorganisms that have a pH optimum for growth of less than pH 3 are termed "acidophiles". To grow at low pH, acidophiles must maintain a pH gradient of several pH units across the cellular membrane while producing ATP by the influx of protons through the F(0)F(1) ATPase. Recent advances in the biochemical analysis of acidophiles coupled to sequencing of several genomes have shed new insights into acidophile pH homeostatic mechanisms. Acidophiles seem to share distinctive structural and functional characteristics including a reversed membrane potential, highly impermeable cell membranes and a predominance of secondary transporters. Also, once protons enter the cytoplasm, methods are required to alleviate effects of a lowered internal pH. This review highlights recent insights regarding how acidophiles are able to survive and grow in these extreme conditions.
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              A comparative view of metabolite and substrate stress and tolerance in microbial bioprocessing: From biofuels and chemicals, to biocatalysis and bioremediation.

              Sergios Nicolaou, Stefan Gaida, Eleftherios T Papoutsakis (2010)
              Metabolites, substrates and substrate impurities may be toxic to cells by damaging biological molecules, organelles, membranes or disrupting biological processes. Chemical stress is routinely encountered in bioprocessing to produce chemicals or fuels from renewable substrates, in whole-cell biocatalysis and bioremediation. Cells respond, adapt and may develop tolerance to chemicals by mechanisms only partially explored, especially for multiple simultaneous stresses. More is known about how cells respond to chemicals, but less about how to develop tolerant strains. Aiming to stimulate new metabolic engineering and synthetic-biology approaches for tolerant-strain development, this review takes a holistic, comparative and modular approach in bringing together the large literature on genes, programs, mechanisms, processes and molecules involved in chemical stress or imparting tolerance. These include stress proteins and transcription factors, efflux pumps, altered membrane composition, stress-adapted energy metabolism, chemical detoxification, and accumulation of small-molecule chaperons and compatible solutes. The modular organization (by chemicals, mechanism, organism, and methods used) imparts flexibility in exploring this complex literature, while comparative analyses point to hidden commonalities, such as an oxidative stress response underlying some solvent and carboxylic-acid stress. Successes involving one or a few genes, as well as global genomic approaches are reviewed with an eye to future developments that would engage novel genomic and systems-biology tools to create altered or semi-synthetic strains with superior tolerance characteristics for bioprocessing. Copyright 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Ningzi Guan:
                ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6174-8053
                nzguan@bio.ecnu.edu.cn
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Appl Microbiol Biotechnol
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol
                Title: Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology
                Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg (Berlin/Heidelberg )
                ISSN (Print): 0175-7598
                ISSN (Electronic): 1432-0614
                Publication date (Electronic): 26 November 2019
                Publication date PMC-release: 26 November 2019
                Publication date (Print): 2020
                Volume: 104
                Issue: 1
                Pages: 51-65
                Affiliations
                [1 ]GRID grid.22069.3f, ISNI 0000 0004 0369 6365, Synthetic Biology and Biomedical Engineering Laboratory, Biomedical Synthetic Biology Research Center, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences and School of Life Sciences, , East China Normal University, ; Dongchuan Road 500, Shanghai, 200241 China
                [2 ]GRID grid.258151.a, ISNI 0000 0001 0708 1323, Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, , Jiangnan University, ; Wuxi, 214122 China
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6174-8053
                Article
                Publisher ID: 10226
                DOI: 10.1007/s00253-019-10226-1
                PMC ID: 6942593
                PubMed ID: 31773206
                SO-VID: 364d1112-d434-4f67-af78-211fa9f1db6f
                Copyright © © The Author(s) 2019
                License:

                Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

                History
                Date received : 12 August 2019
                Date revision received : 23 October 2019
                Date accepted : 27 October 2019
                Funding
                Funded by: 863 projects
                Award ID: 2015AA021005
                Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001809, National Natural Science Foundation of China;
                Award ID: 31622001
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: 111 Project
                Award ID: 111-2-06
                Categories
                Subject: Mini-Review
                Custom metadata
                issue-copyright-statement © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Biotechnology
                Keywords: acid stress,resistance mechanism,probiotics,organic acids,systems and synthetic biology
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Biotechnology
                Keywords: acid stress, resistance mechanism, probiotics, organic acids, systems and synthetic biology

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