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      Housing materials as predictors of under-five mortality in Nigeria: evidence from 2013 demographic and health survey

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          Abstract

          Background

          Nigeria is among countries with high Under-Five Mortality (U5M) rates worldwide. Both maternal and childhood factors have been linked to U5M in the country. However, despite the growing global recognition of the association between housing and quality of life, the role of housing materials as predictors of U5M remain largely unexplored in Nigeria. This study, therefore, investigated the relationship between housing materials and U5M in Nigeria.

          Methods

          The study utilised the 2013 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey data. A representative sample of 40,680 households was selected for the survey. The sample included 18,516 women of reproductive age who had given birth in the past 5 years prior the survey; with attention on the survival status of the index child (the most recent delivery). Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Chi-square, Cox-proportional hazard and Brass 2-parameter models (α = 0.05).

          Results

          The hazard ratio of U5M was 1.46 (C.I = 1.02–1.47, p < 0.001) and 1.23 (C.I = 1.24–1.71, p < 0.001) higher among children who lived in houses built with inadequate and moderate housing materials respectively than those in good housing materials. Under-five deaths show a downward trend (slope = −0.4871) relative to the housing materials assessment score. The refined U5M rate was 143.5, 127.0 and 90.8 per 1000 live birth among women who live in houses built with inadequate, moderate and adequate housing materials respectively. Other predictors of U5M were; the size of the child at birth, preceding birth interval, prenatal care provider, residence and education. Under-five death reduces with increasing maternal level of; education, wealth quintile, media exposure and housing material type and mostly experienced by Muslim women (6.0%), rural women (6.5%) and women residence in the North-West geopolitical zones (6.9%).

          Conclusions

          Living in houses built with poor housing materials promoted U5M in Nigeria. Provision of sustainable housing by the government and the maintenance of existing housing stock to healthful conditions will play a significant role in reducing the burden of U5M in Nigeria.

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          The role of cockroach allergy and exposure to cockroach allergen in causing morbidity among inner-city children with asthma.

          David Rosenstreich, Peyton Eggleston, Meyer Kattan … (1997)
          It has been hypothesized that asthma-related health problems are most severe among children in inner-city areas who are allergic to a specific allergen and also exposed to high levels of that allergen in bedroom dust. From November 1992 through October 1993, we recruited 476 children with asthma (age, four to nine years) from eight inner-city areas in the United States. Immediate hypersensitivity to cockroach, house-dust-mite, and cat allergens was measured by skin testing. We then measured major allergens of cockroach (Bla g 1), dust mites (Der p 1 and Der f 1), and cat dander (Fel d 1) in household dust using monoclonal-antibody-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. High levels of exposure were defined according to proposed thresholds for causing disease. Data on morbidity due to asthma were collected at base line and over a one-year period. Of the children, 36.8 percent were allergic to cockroach allergen, 34.9 percent to dust-mite allergen, and 22.7 percent to cat allergen. Among the children's bedrooms, 50.2 percent had high levels of cockroach allergen in dust, 9.7 percent had high levels of dust-mite allergen, and 12.6 percent had high levels of cat allergen. After we adjusted for sex, score on the Child Behavior Checklist, and family history of asthma, we found that children who were both allergic to cockroach allergen and exposed to high levels of this allergen had 0.37 hospitalization a year, as compared with 0.11 for the other children (P=0.001), and 2.56 unscheduled medical visits for asthma per year, as compared with 1.43 (P<0.001). They also had significantly more days of wheezing, missed school days, and nights with lost sleep, and their parents or other care givers were awakened during the night and changed their daytime plans because of the child's asthma significantly more frequently. Similar patterns were not found for the combination of allergy to dust mites or cat dander and high levels of the allergen. The combination of cockroach allergy and exposure to high levels of this allergen may help explain the frequency of asthma-related health problems in inner-city children.
          Article 0 comments Cited 172 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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            Indoor air pollution in developing countries: a major environmental and public health challenge.

            T. Fernandez Perez Tomei, Ian Bruce, R Albalak (1999)
            Around 50% of people, almost all in developing countries, rely on coal and biomass in the form of wood, dung and crop residues for domestic energy. These materials are typically burnt in simple stoves with very incomplete combustion. Consequently, women and young children are exposed to high levels of indoor air pollution every day. There is consistent evidence that indoor air pollution increases the risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and of acute respiratory infections in childhood, the most important cause of death among children under 5 years of age in developing countries. Evidence also exists of associations with low birth weight, increased infant and perinatal mortality, pulmonary tuberculosis, nasopharyngeal and laryngeal cancer, cataract, and, specifically in respect of the use of coal, with lung cancer. Conflicting evidence exists with regard to asthma. All studies are observational and very few have measured exposure directly, while a substantial proportion have not dealt with confounding. As a result, risk estimates are poorly quantified and may be biased. Exposure to indoor air pollution may be responsible for nearly 2 million excess deaths in developing countries and for some 4% of the global burden of disease. Indoor air pollution is a major global public health threat requiring greatly increased efforts in the areas of research and policy-making. Research on its health effects should be strengthened, particularly in relation to tuberculosis and acute lower respiratory infections. A more systematic approach to the development and evaluation of interventions is desirable, with clearer recognition of the interrelationships between poverty and dependence on polluting fuels.
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              Indoor air pollution from biomass combustion and acute respiratory infections in Kenya: an exposure-response study.

              Majid Ezzati, D Kammen (2001)
              Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are the leading cause of the global burden of disease and have been causally linked with exposure to pollutants from domestic biomass fuels in less-developed countries. We used longitudinal health data coupled with detailed monitoring of personal exposure from more than 2 years of field measurements in rural Kenya to estimate the exposure-response relation for particulates smaller than 10 mm in diameter (PM(10)) generated from biomass combustion. 55 randomly-selected households (including 93 infants and children, 229 individuals between 5 and 49 years of age, and 23 aged 50 or older) in central Kenya were followed up for more than 2 years. Longitudinal data on ARI and acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) were recorded at weekly clinical examinations. Exposure to PM(10) was monitored by measurement of PM(10) emission concentration and time-activity budgets. With the best estimate of the exposure-response relation, we found that ARI and ALRI are increasing concave functions of average daily exposure to PM(10), with the rate of increase declining for exposures above about 1000-2000 mg/m(3). After we had included high-intensity exposure episodes, sex was no longer a significant predictor of ARI and ALRI. The benefits of reduced exposure to PM(10) are larger for average exposure less than about 1000-2000 mg/m(3). Our findings have important consequences for international public-health policies, energy and combustion research, and technology transfer efforts that affect more than 2 billion people worldwide.
              Article 0 comments Cited 72 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Stephen Ayo Adebowale: wahlemirax@gmail.com
                Oyewale Mayowa Morakinyo: wahlemirax@gmail.com
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): BMC Pediatr
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): BMC Pediatr
                Title: BMC Pediatrics
                Publisher: BioMed Central (London )
                ISSN (Electronic): 1471-2431
                Publication date (Electronic): 19 January 2017
                Publication date PMC-release: 19 January 2017
                Publication date Collection: 2017
                Volume: 17
                Electronic Location Identifier: 30
                Affiliations
                [1 ]ISNI 0000 0004 1794 5983, GRID grid.9582.6, Department of Epidemiology and Medical Statistics, , Faculty of Public Health, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, ; Ibadan, Nigeria
                [2 ]ISNI 0000 0004 1794 5983, GRID grid.9582.6, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, , Faculty of Public Health, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, ; Ibadan, Nigeria
                Article
                Publisher ID: 742
                DOI: 10.1186/s12887-016-0742-3
                PMC ID: 5248529
                PubMed ID: 28103828
                SO-VID: 36f24463-c41c-443d-b19a-5bc95f1801ab
                Copyright © © The Author(s). 2016
                License:

                Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

                History
                Date received : 4 February 2016
                Date accepted : 28 November 2016
                Categories
                Subject: Research Article
                Custom metadata
                issue-copyright-statement © The Author(s) 2017

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Pediatrics
                Keywords: housing materials,under-five mortality,nigeria
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Pediatrics
                Keywords: housing materials, under-five mortality, nigeria

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