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      Temperature Differentially Influences the Capacity of Trichoderma Species to Induce Plant Defense Responses in Tomato Against Insect Pests

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          Abstract

          Species of the ecological opportunistic, avirulent fungus, Trichoderma are widely used in agriculture for their ability to protect crops from the attack of pathogenic fungi and for plant growth promotion activity. Recently, it has been shown that they may also have complementary properties that enhance plant defense barriers against insects. However, the use of these fungi is somewhat undermined by their variable level of biocontrol activity, which is influenced by environmental conditions. Understanding the source of this variability is essential for its profitable and wide use in plant protection. Here, we focus on the impact of temperature on Trichoderma afroharzianum T22, Trichoderma atroviride P1, and the defense response induced in tomato by insects. The in vitro development of these two strains was differentially influenced by temperature, and the observed pattern was consistent with temperature-dependent levels of resistance induced by them in tomato plants against the aphid, Macrosiphum euphorbiae, and the noctuid moth, Spodoptera littoralis. Tomato plants treated with T. afroharzianum T22 exhibited enhanced resistance toward both insect pests at 25°C, while T. atroviride P1 proved to be more effective at 20°C. The comparison of plant transcriptomic profiles generated by the two Trichoderma species allowed the identification of specific defense genes involved in the observed response, and a selected group was used to assess, by real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR), the differential gene expression in Trichoderma-treated tomato plants subjected to the two temperature regimens that significantly affected fungal biological performance. These results will help pave the way toward a rational selection of the most suitable Trichoderma isolates for field applications, in order to best face the challenges imposed by local environmental conditions and by extreme climatic shifts due to global warming.

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          Analysis of relative gene expression data using real-time quantitative PCR and the 2(-Delta Delta C(T)) Method.

          The two most commonly used methods to analyze data from real-time, quantitative PCR experiments are absolute quantification and relative quantification. Absolute quantification determines the input copy number, usually by relating the PCR signal to a standard curve. Relative quantification relates the PCR signal of the target transcript in a treatment group to that of another sample such as an untreated control. The 2(-Delta Delta C(T)) method is a convenient way to analyze the relative changes in gene expression from real-time quantitative PCR experiments. The purpose of this report is to present the derivation, assumptions, and applications of the 2(-Delta Delta C(T)) method. In addition, we present the derivation and applications of two variations of the 2(-Delta Delta C(T)) method that may be useful in the analysis of real-time, quantitative PCR data. Copyright 2001 Elsevier Science (USA).
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            Climate trends and global crop production since 1980.

            Efforts to anticipate how climate change will affect future food availability can benefit from understanding the impacts of changes to date. We found that in the cropping regions and growing seasons of most countries, with the important exception of the United States, temperature trends from 1980 to 2008 exceeded one standard deviation of historic year-to-year variability. Models that link yields of the four largest commodity crops to weather indicate that global maize and wheat production declined by 3.8 and 5.5%, respectively, relative to a counterfactual without climate trends. For soybeans and rice, winners and losers largely balanced out. Climate trends were large enough in some countries to offset a significant portion of the increases in average yields that arose from technology, carbon dioxide fertilization, and other factors.
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              Paris Agreement climate proposals need a boost to keep warming well below 2 °C.

              The Paris climate agreement aims at holding global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius and to "pursue efforts" to limit it to 1.5 degrees Celsius. To accomplish this, countries have submitted Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) outlining their post-2020 climate action. Here we assess the effect of current INDCs on reducing aggregate greenhouse gas emissions, its implications for achieving the temperature objective of the Paris climate agreement, and potential options for overachievement. The INDCs collectively lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to where current policies stand, but still imply a median warming of 2.6-3.1 degrees Celsius by 2100. More can be achieved, because the agreement stipulates that targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions are strengthened over time, both in ambition and scope. Substantial enhancement or over-delivery on current INDCs by additional national, sub-national and non-state actions is required to maintain a reasonable chance of meeting the target of keeping warming well below 2 degrees Celsius.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Plant Sci
                Front Plant Sci
                Front. Plant Sci.
                Frontiers in Plant Science
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1664-462X
                09 June 2021
                2021
                : 12
                : 678830
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II , Naples, Italy
                [2] 2Task Force on Microbiome Studies, University of Naples Federico II , Naples, Italy
                [3] 3Interuniversity Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology (BAT Center), University of Naples Federico II , Naples, Italy
                [4] 4Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II , Naples, Italy
                Author notes

                Edited by: Raffaella Balestrini, National Research Council (CNR), Italy

                Reviewed by: Jorge Poveda, Public University of Navarre, Spain; Elisa Pellegrino, Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, Italy

                *Correspondence: Maria Cristina Digilio digilio@ 123456unina.it

                This article was submitted to Plant Symbiotic Interactions, a section of the journal Frontiers in Plant Science

                †These authors have contributed equally to this work and share first authorship

                Article
                10.3389/fpls.2021.678830
                8221184
                34177994
                39764b8c-94e3-4698-917a-0e38cd7576cb
                Copyright © 2021 Di Lelio, Coppola, Comite, Molisso, Lorito, Woo, Pennacchio, Rao and Digilio.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 10 March 2021
                : 14 May 2021
                Page count
                Figures: 12, Tables: 3, Equations: 0, References: 72, Pages: 15, Words: 10417
                Categories
                Plant Science
                Original Research

                Plant science & Botany
                induced systemic resistance,defense genes,gene expression analysis,macrosiphum euphorbiae,spodoptera littoralis,biological control

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