Effects of Spironolactone in Combination with Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors or Angiotensin Receptor Blockers in Patients with Proteinuria

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Abstract

Background/Aims: This study aimed to investigate the potential beneficial anti-proteinuric effect of an add-on aldosterone blockade and the impact of the aldosterone escape phenomenon. Methods: We retrospectively analyzed data of 304 patients with persistent proteinuria, who were administered spironolactone (25 mg/day) after treatment with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) or angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) for >3 months. Patients were divided according to their aldosterone levels during ACEI/ARB treatment into an escape group (plasma aldosterone >80 pg/mL, N=95, 31.5%) and a non-escape group (plasma aldosterone ≤80 pg/mL, N=209, 68.5%) and according to their urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Results: After 12 months, the UACR decreased significantly in patients with 1≤UACR<3.5 g/g Cr, UACR ≥3.5 g/g Cr, and eGFR ≥60 mL/min/1.73 m2, and in the non-escape group. Severe hyperkalemia (K≥7.0 mEq/L) developed in 9 of 137 patients with eGFR<60 mL/min/1.73 m2 (6.5%) and in none of the 167 patients with eGFR≥60 mL/min/1.73 m2. Conclusions: Proteinuria decreased significantly after add-on spironolactone treatment in patients with 1≤UACR<3.5 g/g Cr, UACR ≥3.5 g/g Cr, and eGFR ≥60 mL/min/1.73 m2, and in the non-escape group. The anti-proteinuric effect of spironolactone may vary according to the degree of albuminuria, impaired eGFR, and aldosterone escape.

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Most cited references 19

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Long-term effects of spironolactone on proteinuria and kidney function in patients with chronic kidney disease.

R Bigazzi, Stefano Bianchi, V Campese (2006)

Experimental evidence suggests that aldosterone contributes to progressive kidney disease. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin type 1 receptor antagonists suppress the renin-angiotensin system but they do not effectively reduce plasma aldosterone. Hence, administration of aldosterone receptor antagonists may provide additional renal protection. In the present prospective randomized open-label study, we evaluated the effects of spironolactone (25 mg/day for 1 year) on proteinuria and estimated glomerular filtration rate in 83 patients with chronic kidney disease already treated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and/or angiotensin type 1 receptor antagonists. Eighty-two patients were treated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and/or angiotensin type 1 receptor antagonists alone and served as controls. After 1 year of therapy, proteinuria decreased from 2.1+/-0.08 to 0.89+/-0.06 g/g creatinine (P<0.001) in patients treated with spironolactone, but it did not change in control patients. Baseline aldosterone levels were significantly correlated with proteinuria (r=0.76, P<0.0001), and predicted the degree of reduction in proteinuria with spironolactone (r=0.42, P<0.0002). Baseline estimated glomerular filtration rate was similar in patients treated with spironolactone and controls (62.4+/-2.4 and 62.2+/-2.1 ml/min/1.73 m(2), respectively). After 1 month of therapy with spironolactone, estimated glomerular filtration rate decreased more in patients treated with spironolactone than in controls. However, by the end of 1 year the monthly rate of decrease in estimated glomerular filtration rate from baseline was lower in patients treated with spironolactone than in controls (0.323+/-0.044 vs 0.474+/-0.037 ml/min/1.73 m(2), P<0.01). Spironolactone caused a significant rise in serum potassium levels (from 4.2+/-0.04 at baseline to 5.0+/-0.05 mEq/l after 12 months of treatment, P<0.001). In conclusion, this study has shown that spironolactone may reduce proteinuria and retard renal progression in chronic kidney disease patients.

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Podocyte as the target for aldosterone: roles of oxidative stress and Sgk1.

S. Yoshida, Shigeru Shibata, M Nagase … (2007)

Accumulating evidence suggests that mineralocorticoid receptor blockade effectively reduces proteinuria in hypertensive patients. However, the mechanism of the antiproteinuric effect remains elusive. In this study, we investigated the effects of aldosterone on podocyte, a key player of the glomerular filtration barrier. Uninephrectomized rats were continuously infused with aldosterone and fed a high-salt diet. Aldosterone induced proteinuria progressively, associated with blood pressure elevation. Notably, gene expressions of podocyte-associated molecules nephrin and podocin were markedly decreased in aldosterone-infused rats at 2 weeks, with a gradual decrease thereafter. Immunohistochemical studies and electron microscopy confirmed the podocyte damage. Podocyte injury was accompanied by renal reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase activation, increased oxidative stress, and enhanced expression of aldosterone effector kinase Sgk1. Treatment with eplerenone, a selective aldosterone receptor blocker, almost completely prevented podocyte damage and proteinuria, with normalization of elevated reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase activity. In addition, proteinuria, podocyte damage, and Sgk1 upregulation were significantly alleviated by tempol, a membrane-permeable superoxide dismutase, suggesting the pathogenic role of oxidative stress. Although hydralazine treatment almost normalized blood pressure, it failed to improve proteinuria and podocyte damage. In cultured podocytes with consistent expression of mineralocorticoid receptor, aldosterone stimulated membrane translocation of reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase cytosolic components and oxidative stress generation in podocytes. Furthermore, aldosterone enhanced the expression of Sgk1, which was inhibited by mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist and tempol. In conclusion, podocytes are injured at the early stage in aldosterone-infused rats, resulting in the occurrence of proteinuria. Aldosterone can directly modulate podocyte function, possibly through the induction of oxidative stress and Sgk1.

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Change in proteinuria after adding aldosterone blockers to ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers in CKD: a systematic review.

Abhijit Kshirsagar, Andrew Bomback, Philip Klemmer … (2008)

The use of mineralocorticoid receptor blockers (MRBs) in patients with chronic kidney disease is growing, but data for efficacy in decreasing proteinuria are limited by a relative paucity of studies, many of which are small and uncontrolled. We performed a systematic review using the MEDLINE database (inception to November 1, 2006), abstracts from national meetings, and selected reference lists. Adult patients with chronic kidney disease and proteinuria. English-language studies investigating the use of MRBs added to long-term angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitor and/or angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) therapy in adult patients with proteinuric kidney disease. MRBs as additive therapy to conventional renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system blockade in patients with chronic kidney disease. Changes in proteinuria as the primary outcome; rates of hyperkalemia, changes in blood pressure, and changes in glomerular filtration rate as secondary outcomes. 15 studies met inclusion criteria for our review; 4 were parallel-group randomized controlled trials, 4 were crossover randomized controlled trials, 2 were pilot studies, and 5 were case series. When MRBs were added to ACE-inhibitor and/or ARB therapy, the reported proteinuria decreases from baseline ranged from 15% to 54%, with most estimates in the 30% to 40% range. Hyperkalemic events were significant in only 1 of 8 randomized controlled trials. MRB therapy was associated with statistically significant decreases in blood pressure and glomerular filtration rate in approximately 40% and 25% of included studies, respectively. Reported results were insufficient for meta-analysis, with only 2 studies reporting sufficient data to calculate SEs of their published estimates. We were unable to locate studies that showed no effect of MRB treatment over placebo, raising concern for publication bias. Although data suggest that adding MRBs to ACE-inhibitor and/or ARB therapy yields significant decreases in proteinuria without adverse effects of hyperkalemia and impaired renal function, routine use of MRBs as additive therapy in patients with chronic kidney disease cannot be recommended yet. However, the findings of this review promote interesting hypotheses for future study.

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Author and article information

Journal

Journal ID (publisher-id): KBR

Journal ID (nlm-ta): Kidney Blood Press Res

Journal ID (doi): 10.1159/issn.1420-4096

Title: Kidney and Blood Pressure Research

Publisher: S. Karger AG

ISSN (Print): 1420-4096

ISSN (Electronic): 1423-0143

Publication date Subscription-year: 2014

Publication date (Print): December 2014

Publication date (Electronic): 15 December 2014

Volume: 39

Issue: 6

Pages: 573-580

Affiliations

Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Korea

Author notes

*Soo Wan Kim, MD, PhD., Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, 42 Jebongro, Gwangju 501-757 (Korea), Tel. +82-62-220-6271, Fax +82-62-225-8578, E-Mail skimw@chonnam.ac.kr

Article

Publisher ID: 368470 Other ID: Kidney Blood Press Res 2014;39:573-580

DOI: 10.1159/000368470

PubMed ID: 25531940

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