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      Transcriptomic changes with increasing algal symbiont reveal the detailed process underlying establishment of coral-algal symbiosis

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          Abstract

          To clarify the establishment process of coral-algal symbiotic relationships, coral transcriptome changes during increasing algal symbiont densities were examined in juvenile corals following inoculation with the algae Symbiodinium goreaui (clade C) and S. trenchii (clade D), and comparison of their transcriptomes with aposymbiotic corals by RNA-sequencing. Since Symbiodinium clades C and D showed very different rates of density increase, comparisons were made of early onsets of both symbionts, revealing that the host behaved differently for each. RNA-sequencing showed that the number of differentially-expressed genes in corals colonized by clade D increased ca. two-fold from 10 to 20 days, whereas corals with clade C showed unremarkable changes consistent with a slow rate of density increase. The data revealed dynamic metabolic changes in symbiotic corals. In addition, the endocytosis pathway was also upregulated, while lysosomal digestive enzymes and the immune system tended to be downregulated as the density of clade D algae increased. The present dataset provides an enormous number of candidate symbiosis-related molecules that exhibit the detailed process by which coral-algal endosymbiosis is established.

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          Ocean acidification causes bleaching and productivity loss in coral reef builders.

          Ocean acidification represents a key threat to coral reefs by reducing the calcification rate of framework builders. In addition, acidification is likely to affect the relationship between corals and their symbiotic dinoflagellates and the productivity of this association. However, little is known about how acidification impacts on the physiology of reef builders and how acidification interacts with warming. Here, we report on an 8-week study that compared bleaching, productivity, and calcification responses of crustose coralline algae (CCA) and branching (Acropora) and massive (Porites) coral species in response to acidification and warming. Using a 30-tank experimental system, we manipulated CO(2) levels to simulate doubling and three- to fourfold increases [Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projection categories IV and VI] relative to present-day levels under cool and warm scenarios. Results indicated that high CO(2) is a bleaching agent for corals and CCA under high irradiance, acting synergistically with warming to lower thermal bleaching thresholds. We propose that CO(2) induces bleaching via its impact on photoprotective mechanisms of the photosystems. Overall, acidification impacted more strongly on bleaching and productivity than on calcification. Interestingly, the intermediate, warm CO(2) scenario led to a 30% increase in productivity in Acropora, whereas high CO(2) lead to zero productivity in both corals. CCA were most sensitive to acidification, with high CO(2) leading to negative productivity and high rates of net dissolution. Our findings suggest that sensitive reef-building species such as CCA may be pushed beyond their thresholds for growth and survival within the next few decades whereas corals will show delayed and mixed responses.
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            Using the Acropora digitifera genome to understand coral responses to environmental change.

            Despite the enormous ecological and economic importance of coral reefs, the keystone organisms in their establishment, the scleractinian corals, increasingly face a range of anthropogenic challenges including ocean acidification and seawater temperature rise. To understand better the molecular mechanisms underlying coral biology, here we decoded the approximately 420-megabase genome of Acropora digitifera using next-generation sequencing technology. This genome contains approximately 23,700 gene models. Molecular phylogenetics indicate that the coral and the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis diverged approximately 500 million years ago, considerably earlier than the time over which modern corals are represented in the fossil record (∼240 million years ago). Despite the long evolutionary history of the endosymbiosis, no evidence was found for horizontal transfer of genes from symbiont to host. However, unlike several other corals, Acropora seems to lack an enzyme essential for cysteine biosynthesis, implying dependency of this coral on its symbionts for this amino acid. Corals inhabit environments where they are frequently exposed to high levels of solar radiation, and analysis of the Acropora genome data indicates that the coral host can independently carry out de novo synthesis of mycosporine-like amino acids, which are potent ultraviolet-protective compounds. In addition, the coral innate immunity repertoire is notably more complex than that of the sea anemone, indicating that some of these genes may have roles in symbiosis or coloniality. A number of genes with putative roles in calcification were identified, and several of these are restricted to corals. The coral genome provides a platform for understanding the molecular basis of symbiosis and responses to environmental changes.
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              Endocytosis and signalling: intertwining molecular networks.

              Cell signalling and endocytic membrane trafficking have traditionally been viewed as distinct processes. Although our present understanding is incomplete and there are still great controversies, it is now recognized that these processes are intimately and bidirectionally linked in animal cells. Indeed, many recent examples illustrate how endocytosis regulates receptor signalling (including signalling from receptor tyrosine kinases and G protein-coupled receptors) and, conversely, how signalling regulates the endocytic pathway. The mechanistic and functional principles that underlie the relationship between signalling and endocytosis in cell biology are becoming increasingly evident across many systems.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                ikuko_yy@hotmail.com
                Journal
                Sci Rep
                Sci Rep
                Scientific Reports
                Nature Publishing Group UK (London )
                2045-2322
                14 November 2018
                14 November 2018
                2018
                : 8
                : 16802
                Affiliations
                [1 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2369 4728, GRID grid.20515.33, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, ; 111 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305–8577 Japan
                [2 ]GRID grid.465198.7, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, , Karolinska Institutet, ; Solna, 17 177 Sweden
                [3 ]ISNI 0000 0001 1090 2030, GRID grid.265074.2, Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, , Tokyo Metropolitan University, ; 1–1 Minamiosawa, Hachioji, Tokyo, 192–0397 Japan
                [4 ]ISNI 0000 0000 8661 1590, GRID grid.411621.1, Marine Biological Science Section, Education and Research Center for Biological Resources, Faculty of Life and Environmental Science, , Shimane University, ; 194 Kamo, Okinoshima-cho, Oki, Shimane, 685-0024 Japan
                [5 ]ISNI 0000 0004 0466 9350, GRID grid.288127.6, Center for Information Biology, , National Institute of Genetics, ; 1111 Yata, Mishima, Shizuoka, 411–8540 Japan
                [6 ]ISNI 0000 0001 1090 2030, GRID grid.265074.2, Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics, , Tokyo Metropolitan University, ; 1-1 Minamiosawa, Hachioji, Tokyo, 192-0397 Japan
                Article
                34575
                10.1038/s41598-018-34575-5
                6235891
                30429501
                3a2bc535-acde-479d-846f-1bd6efc0552c
                © The Author(s) 2018

                Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

                History
                : 5 February 2018
                : 19 October 2018
                Funding
                Funded by: FundRef https://doi.org/10.13039/501100001691, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS);
                Award ID: 14J40135
                Award ID: 15K18744
                Award Recipient :
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