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      Disparities in CD4 + T-Lymphocyte Monitoring Among Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Positive Medicaid Beneficiaries: Evidence of Differential Treatment at the Point of Care

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          Abstract

          This study identifies substantial disparities in receipt of guideline-concordant CD4 tests among HIV-positive Medicaid beneficiaries despite evidenced access to health care. Failure to provide CD4 tests is critical because of their role in determining appropriateness of antiretroviral treatment.

          Abstract

          Background

           Monitoring of immune function, measured by CD4 + T-lymphocyte (CD4) cell count, is an essential service for people with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Prescription of antiretroviral (ARV) medications is contingent on CD4 cell count; patients without regular CD4 monitoring are unlikely to receive ARVs when indicated. This study assesses disparities in CD4 monitoring among HIV-positive Medicaid beneficiaries.

          Methods

           In this retrospective observational study, we examined 24 months of administrative data on 2250 HIV-positive, continuously enrolled, fee-for-service, Medicaid beneficiaries with at least 2 outpatient healthcare encounters. We used logistic regression to evaluate the association of patient demographics (age, gender, race or ethnicity, and language) with receipt of at least 1 CD4 test per year, controlling for other potentially confounding variables.

          Results

           Having a history of ARV therapy was positively associated with receipt of CD4 tests. We found racial or ethnic, gender, and age disparities in CD4 testing. Among individuals with a history of ARV use, all racial or ethnic groups were significantly less likely to have CD4 tests than White non-Latinos (African Americans, odds ratio [OR] = 0.35, P < .0001; Asian or Pacific Islanders, OR = 0.31, P = .0047; and Latinos, OR = 0.42, P < .0001).

          Conclusions

           We identified disparities in receipt of CD4 tests, a finding that may elucidate one potential pathway for previously reported disparities in ARV treatment. Further qualitative and quantitative research is needed to identify the specific factors that account for these disparities, so that appropriate interventions can be implemented.

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          Most cited references37

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          The therapeutic implications of timely linkage and early retention in HIV care.

          Following HIV diagnosis, linkage to outpatient treatment, antiretroviral initiation, and longitudinal retention in care represent the foundation for successful treatment. While prior studies have evaluated these processes in isolation, a systematic evaluation of successive steps in the same cohort of patients has not yet been performed. To ensure optimal long-term outcomes, a better understanding of the interplay of these processes is needed. Therefore, a retrospective cohort study of patients initiating outpatient care at the University of Alabama at Birmingham 1917 HIV=AIDS Clinic between January 2000 and December 2005 was undertaken. Multivariable models determined factors associated with: late diagnosis=linkage to care (initial CD4 < 350 cells=mm3), timely antiretroviral initiation, and retention across the first two years of care. Delayed linkage was observed in two-thirds of the overall sample (n = 567) and was associated with older age (odds ratio [OR] = 1.31 per 10 years; 95%confidence interval [CI] = 1.06-1.62) and African American race (OR = 2.45; 95% CI = 1.60-3.74). Attending all clinic visits (hazard ratio [HR] = 6.45; 95% CI = 4.47-9.31) and lower initial CD4 counts led to earlier antiretroviral initiation. Worse retention in the first 2 years was associated with younger age (OR = 0.68 per 10 years;95% CI = 0.56-0.83), higher baseline CD4 count, and substance abuse (OR = 1.78; 95% CI = 1.16-2.73). Interventions to improve timely HIV diagnosis and linkage to care should focus on older patients and African Americans while efforts to improve retention should address younger patients, those with higher baseline CD4 counts, and substance abuse. Missed clinic visits represent an important obstacle to the timely initiation of antiretroviral therapy. These data inform development of interventions to improve linkage and retention in HIV care, an emerging area of growing importance.
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            Pneumonia hospitalizations among young children before and after introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine--United States, 1997-2006.

            (2009)
            Streptococcus pneumoniae is the leading bacterial cause of community-acquired pneumonia hospitalizations and an important cause of bacteremia and meningitis, especially among young children and older adults. A 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) was licensed and the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices formulated recommendations for its use in infants and children in February 2000. Vaccination coverage rapidly increased during the second half of 2000, in part through funding by CDC's Vaccines for Children program. Subsequently, active population- and laboratory-based surveillance demonstrated substantial reductions in invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) among children and adults. In addition, decreases in hospitalizations and ambulatory-care visits for all-cause pneumonia also were reported. To gauge whether the effects of PCV7 on reducing pneumonia continue, CDC is monitoring pneumonia hospitalizations by using data from the Nationwide Inpatient Sample. This report provides an update for 2005 and 2006, the most recent years for which information is available. In 2005 and 2006, the incidence rates for all-cause pneumonia hospitalizations among children aged <2 years were 9.1 per 1,000 and 8.1 per 1,000, respectively. In 2006, the rate for all-cause pneumonia among children aged <2 years was approximately 35% lower than during 1997--1999. Most of this decrease occurred soon after the vaccine was licensed in 2000, and the rates have remained relatively stable since then. The rate for all-cause pneumonia among children aged 2--4 years did not change after PCV7 licensure and has remained stable. Continued monitoring of pneumonia-related hospitalizations among children is needed to track the effects of pneumococcal immunization programs.
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              Trauma, mental health, distrust, and stigma among HIV-positive persons: implications for effective care.

              Individuals living with HIV often have complicated histories, including negative experiences such as traumatic events, mental illness, and stigma. As the medical community in the United States adapts to managing HIV as a chronic disease, understanding factors such as these negative experiences that may be associated with poorer adherence to treatment regimens, greater HIV risk behavior, and lower patient quality of life becomes critical to HIV care and prevention. In less wealthy nations, these issues are also critical for addressing quality of life as well as medication adherence in the areas where antiretroviral therapies are being made available. This article presents a review of the literature regarding the following psychosocial factors as they relate to HIV/AIDS in the US and globally: traumatic events; mental illness, including depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder; lack of trust in the healthcare system and government; and experiences of stigma among individuals with HIV disease. These factors have been found to be prevalent among individuals with HIV/AIDS, regardless of gender or race/ethnicity. Traumatic events, mental illness, distrust, and stigma have also been linked with poorer adherence to medication regimens and HIV risk behavior.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Open Forum Infect Dis
                Open Forum Infect Dis
                ofid
                ofids
                Open Forum Infectious Diseases
                Oxford University Press
                2328-8957
                September 2014
                05 July 2014
                : 1
                : 2
                : ofu042
                Affiliations
                [1 ]University of California Los Angeles Fielding School of Public Health
                [2 ]Center for Health Policy Research
                Author notes
                Correspondence: Anna C. Davis, MPH, UCLA Center for Health Policy Research, 10960 Wilshire Blvd, Suite 1550, Los Angeles, CA 90024. E-mail: annadavis@ 123456ucla.edu .
                Article
                ofu042
                10.1093/ofid/ofu042
                4231484
                25401120
                3ac4a4bc-d6bc-48c2-9c9a-0967bf1591bf
                Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2014. This work is written by (a) US Government employee(s) and is in the public domain in the US.
                History
                : 9 February 2014
                : 15 May 2014
                Page count
                Pages: 9
                Categories
                Major Articles
                Custom metadata
                Summer 2014

                cd4,hiv,disparities,medicaid
                cd4, hiv, disparities, medicaid

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