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      Identification, prevalence and pathogenicity of Colletotrichum species causing anthracnose of Capsicum annuum in Asia

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          Abstract

          Anthracnose of chili ( Capsicum spp.) causes major production losses throughout Asia where chili plants are grown. A total of 260 Colletotrichum isolates, associated with necrotic lesions of chili leaves and fruit were collected from chili producing areas of Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Taiwan. Colletotrichum truncatum was the most commonly isolated species from infected chili fruit and was readily identified by its falcate spores and abundant setae in the necrotic lesions. The other isolates consisted of straight conidia (cylindrical and fusiform) which were difficult to differentiate to species based on morphological characters. Taxonomic analysis of these straight conidia isolates based on multi-gene phylogenetic analyses (ITS , gapdh, chs-1, act, tub2, his3, ApMat, gs) revealed a further seven known Colletotrichum species, C. endophyticum, C. fructicola, C. karsti, C. plurivorum, C. scovillei, C. siamense and C. tropicale. In addition, three novel species are also described as C. javanense, C. makassarense and C. tainanense, associated with anthracnose of chili fruit in West Java (Indonesia); Makassar, South Sulawesi (Indonesia); and Tainan (Taiwan), respectively. Colletotrichum siamense is reported for the first time causing anthracnose of Capsicum annuum in Indonesia and Sri Lanka. This is also the first report of C. fructicola causing anthracnose of chili in Taiwan and Thailand and C. plurivorum in Malaysia and Thailand. Of the species with straight conidia, C. scovillei (acutatum complex), was the most prevalent throughout the surveyed countries, except for Sri Lanka from where this species was not isolated. Colletotrichum siamense (gloeosporioides complex) was also common in Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Thailand. Pathogenicity tests on chili fruit showed that C. javanense and C. scovillei were highly aggressive, especially when inoculated on non-wounded fruit, compared to all other species. The existence of new, highly aggressive exotic species, such as C. javanense, poses a biosecurity risk to production in countries which do not have adequate quarantine regulations to restrict the entry of exotic pathogens.

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          AMPLIFICATION AND DIRECT SEQUENCING OF FUNGAL RIBOSOMAL RNA GENES FOR PHYLOGENETICS

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            TreeView: an application to display phylogenetic trees on personal computers.

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              The Colletotrichum gloeosporioides species complex

              The limit of the Colletotrichum gloeosporioides species complex is defined genetically, based on a strongly supported clade within the Colletotrichum ITS gene tree. All taxa accepted within this clade are morphologically more or less typical of the broadly defined C. gloeosporioides, as it has been applied in the literature for the past 50 years. We accept 22 species plus one subspecies within the C. gloeosporioides complex. These include C. asianum, C. cordylinicola, C. fructicola, C. gloeosporioides, C. horii, C. kahawae subsp. kahawae, C. musae, C. nupharicola, C. psidii, C. siamense, C. theobromicola, C. tropicale, and C. xanthorrhoeae, along with the taxa described here as new, C. aenigma, C. aeschynomenes, C. alatae, C. alienum, C. aotearoa, C. clidemiae, C. kahawae subsp. ciggaro, C. salsolae, and C. ti, plus the nom. nov. C. queenslandicum (for C. gloeosporioides var. minus). All of the taxa are defined genetically on the basis of multi-gene phylogenies. Brief morphological descriptions are provided for species where no modern description is available. Many of the species are unable to be reliably distinguished using ITS, the official barcoding gene for fungi. Particularly problematic are a set of species genetically close to C. musae and another set of species genetically close to C. kahawae, referred to here as the Musae clade and the Kahawae clade, respectively. Each clade contains several species that are phylogenetically well supported in multi-gene analyses, but within the clades branch lengths are short because of the small number of phylogenetically informative characters, and in a few cases individual gene trees are incongruent. Some single genes or combinations of genes, such as glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and glutamine synthetase, can be used to reliably distinguish most taxa and will need to be developed as secondary barcodes for species level identification, which is important because many of these fungi are of biosecurity significance. In addition to the accepted species, notes are provided for names where a possible close relationship with C. gloeosporioides sensu lato has been suggested in the recent literature, along with all subspecific taxa and formae speciales within C. gloeosporioides and its putative teleomorph Glomerella cingulata. Taxonomic novelties: Name replacement - C. queenslandicum B. Weir & P.R. Johnst. New species - C. aenigma B. Weir & P.R. Johnst., C. aeschynomenes B. Weir & P.R. Johnst., C. alatae B. Weir & P.R. Johnst., C. alienum B. Weir & P.R. Johnst, C. aotearoa B. Weir & P.R. Johnst., C. clidemiae B. Weir & P.R. Johnst., C. salsolae B. Weir & P.R. Johnst., C. ti B. Weir & P.R. Johnst. New subspecies - C. kahawae subsp. ciggaro B. Weir & P.R. Johnst. Typification: Epitypification - C. queenslandicum B. Weir & P.R. Johnst.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                paulwjt@unimelb.edu.au
                Journal
                IMA Fungus
                IMA Fungus
                IMA Fungus
                BioMed Central (London )
                2210-6340
                2210-6359
                28 June 2019
                28 June 2019
                2019
                : 10
                : 8
                Affiliations
                [1 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2179 088X, GRID grid.1008.9, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, , The University of Melbourne, ; Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia
                [2 ]ISNI 0000 0004 0368 8584, GRID grid.418704.e, Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, ; Uppsalalaan 8, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
                [3 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2179 088X, GRID grid.1008.9, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, ; Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia
                [4 ]ISNI 0000 0000 8544 230X, GRID grid.412001.6, Department of Plant Pest & Disease, , Universitas Hasanuddin, ; Makassar, Indonesia
                [5 ]ISNI 0000 0001 0944 049X, GRID grid.9723.f, Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture at Kamphaeng Saen, , Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, ; Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3076-2084
                Article
                1
                10.1186/s43008-019-0001-y
                7184891
                32355609
                3d11a7a7-642e-4826-8f30-da7dfedeae28
                © The Author(s) 2019

                Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

                History
                : 18 April 2019
                : 25 April 2019
                Categories
                Research
                Custom metadata
                © The Author(s) 2019

                Plant science & Botany
                phylogenetics,plant pathology,new taxa
                Plant science & Botany
                phylogenetics, plant pathology, new taxa

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