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      Ghrelin’s Relationship to Blood Glucose

      1 , 2 , 3 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 1 , 2 , 3
      Endocrinology
      The Endocrine Society

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          Abstract

          Much effort has been directed at studying the orexigenic actions of administered ghrelin and the potential effects of the endogenous ghrelin system on food intake, food reward, body weight, adiposity, and energy expenditure. Although endogenous ghrelin’s actions on some of these processes remain ambiguous, its glucoregulatory actions have emerged as well-recognized features during extreme metabolic conditions. The blood glucose–raising actions of ghrelin are beneficial during starvation-like conditions, defending against life-threatening falls in blood glucose, but they are seemingly detrimental in obese states and in certain monogenic forms of diabetes, contributing to hyperglycemia. Also of interest, blood glucose negatively regulates ghrelin secretion. This article reviews the literature suggesting the existence of a blood glucose–ghrelin axis and highlights the factors that mediate the glucoregulatory actions of ghrelin, especially during metabolic extremes such as starvation and diabetes.

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          Most cited references140

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          A receptor in pituitary and hypothalamus that functions in growth hormone release.

          Small synthetic molecules termed growth hormone secretagogues (GHSs) act on the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus to stimulate and amplify pulsatile growth hormone (GH) release. A heterotrimeric GTP-binding protein (G protein)-coupled receptor (GPC-R) of the pituitary and arcuate ventro-medial and infundibular hypothalamus of swine and humans was cloned and was shown to be the target of the GHSs. On the basis of its pharmacological and molecular characterization, this GPC-R defines a neuroendocrine pathway for the control of pulsatile GH release and supports the notion that the GHSs mimic an undiscovered hormone.
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            Ghrelin octanoylation mediated by an orphan lipid transferase.

            The peptide hormone ghrelin is the only known protein modified with an O-linked octanoyl side group, which occurs on its third serine residue. This modification is crucial for ghrelin's physiological effects including regulation of feeding, adiposity, and insulin secretion. Despite the crucial role for octanoylation in the physiology of ghrelin, the lipid transferase that mediates this novel modification has remained unknown. Here we report the identification and characterization of human GOAT, the ghrelin O-acyl transferase. GOAT is a conserved orphan membrane-bound O-acyl transferase (MBOAT) that specifically octanoylates serine-3 of the ghrelin peptide. Transcripts for both GOAT and ghrelin occur predominantly in stomach and pancreas. GOAT is conserved across vertebrates, and genetic disruption of the GOAT gene in mice leads to complete absence of acylated ghrelin in circulation. The occurrence of ghrelin and GOAT in stomach and pancreas tissues demonstrates the relevance of GOAT in the acylation of ghrelin and further implicates acylated ghrelin in pancreatic function.
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              Stomach is a major source of circulating ghrelin, and feeding state determines plasma ghrelin-like immunoreactivity levels in humans.

              Ghrelin, an endogenous ligand for the GH secretagogue receptor, was isolated from rat stomach and is involved in a novel system for regulating GH release. Although previous studies in rodents suggest that ghrelin is also involved in energy homeostasis and that ghrelin secretion is influenced by feeding, little is known about plasma ghrelin in humans. To address this issue, we studied plasma ghrelin-like immunoreactivity levels and elucidated the source of circulating ghrelin and the effects of feeding state on plasma ghrelin-like immunoreactivity levels in humans. The plasma ghrelin-like immunoreactivity concentration in normal humans measured by a specific RIA was 166.0 +/- 10.1 fmol/ml. Northern blot analysis of various human tissues identified ghrelin mRNA found most abundantly in the stomach and plasma ghrelin-like immunoreactivity levels in totally gastrectomized patients were reduced to 35% of those in normal controls. Plasma ghrelin-like immunoreactivity levels were increased by 31% after 12-h fasting and reduced by 22% immediately after habitual feeding. In patients with anorexia nervosa, plasma ghrelin-like immunoreactivity levels were markedly elevated compared with those in normal controls (401.2 +/- 58.4 vs. 192.8 +/- 19.4 fmol/ml) and were negatively correlated with body mass indexes. We conclude that the stomach is a major source of circulating ghrelin and that plasma ghrelin-like immunoreactivity levels reflect acute and chronic feeding states in humans.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Endocrinology
                The Endocrine Society
                1945-7170
                May 2019
                May 01 2019
                March 15 2019
                May 2019
                May 01 2019
                March 15 2019
                : 160
                : 5
                : 1247-1261
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Division of Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
                [2 ]Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
                [3 ]Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
                Article
                10.1210/en.2019-00074
                6482034
                30874792
                3d4dc9ea-4083-4521-a417-a2fa3b99e142
                © 2019
                History

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