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      Toxicity of lead: A review with recent updates

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          Abstract

          Lead poisoning has been recognized as a major public health risk, particularly in developing countries. Though various occupational and public health measures have been undertaken in order to control lead exposure, cases of lead poisoning are still reported. Exposure to lead produces various deleterious effects on the hematopoietic, renal, reproductive and central nervous system, mainly through increased oxidative stress. These alterations play a prominent role in disease manifestations. Modulation of cellular thiols for protection against reactive oxygen species (ROS) has been used as a therapeutic strategy against lead poisoning. N-acetylcysteine, α-lipoic acid, vitamin E, quercetin and a few herbal extracts show prophylaxis against the majority of lead mediated injury in both in vitro and in vivo studies. This review provides a comprehensive account of recent updates describing health effects of lead exposure, relevant biomarkers and mechanisms involved in lead toxicity. It also updates the readers about recent advances in chelation therapy and newer therapeutic strategies, like nanoencapsulation, to treat lead induced toxic manifestations.

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          Flavonoids as antioxidants.

          Pier-Giorgio Pietta (2000)
          Flavonoids are phenolic substances isolated from a wide range of vascular plants, with over 8000 individual compounds known. They act in plants as antioxidants, antimicrobials, photoreceptors, visual attractors, feeding repellants, and for light screening. Many studies have suggested that flavonoids exhibit biological activities, including antiallergenic, antiviral, antiinflammatory, and vasodilating actions. However, most interest has been devoted to the antioxidant activity of flavonoids, which is due to their ability to reduce free radical formation and to scavenge free radicals. The capacity of flavonoids to act as antioxidants in vitro has been the subject of several studies in the past years, and important structure-activity relationships of the antioxidant activity have been established. The antioxidant efficacy of flavonoids in vivo is less documented, presumably because of the limited knowledge on their uptake in humans. Most ingested flavonoids are extensively degraded to various phenolic acids, some of which still possess a radical-scavenging ability. Both the absorbed flavonoids and their metabolites may display an in vivo antioxidant activity, which is evidenced experimentally by the increase of the plasma antioxidant status, the sparing effect on vitamin E of erythrocyte membranes and low-density lipoproteins, and the preservation of erythrocyte membrane polyunsaturated fatty acids. This review presents the current knowledge on structural aspects and in vitro antioxidant capacity of most common flavonoids as well as in vivo antioxidant activity and effects on endogenous antioxidants.
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            Lead Exposure and Cardiovascular Disease—A Systematic Review

            Ana Navas-Acien, Eliseo Guallar, Ellen Silbergeld … (2006)
            Objective This systematic review evaluates the evidence on the association between lead exposure and cardiovascular end points in human populations. Methods We reviewed all observational studies from database searches and citations regarding lead and cardiovascular end points. Results A positive association of lead exposure with blood pressure has been identified in numerous studies in different settings, including prospective studies and in relatively homogeneous socioeconomic status groups. Several studies have identified a dose–response relationship. Although the magnitude of this association is modest, it may be underestimated by measurement error. The hypertensive effects of lead have been confirmed in experimental models. Beyond hypertension, studies in general populations have identified a positive association of lead exposure with clinical cardiovascular outcomes (cardiovascular, coronary heart disease, and stroke mortality; and peripheral arterial disease), but the number of studies is small. In some studies these associations were observed at blood lead levels < 5 μg/dL. Conclusions We conclude that the evidence is sufficient to infer a causal relationship of lead exposure with hypertension. We conclude that the evidence is suggestive but not sufficient to infer a causal relationship of lead exposure with clinical cardiovascular outcomes. There is also suggestive but insufficient evidence to infer a causal relationship of lead exposure with heart rate variability. Public Health Implications These findings have immediate public health implications. Current occupational safety standards for blood lead must be lowered and a criterion for screening elevated lead exposure needs to be established in adults. Risk assessment and economic analyses of lead exposure impact must include the cardiovascular effects of lead. Finally, regulatory and public health interventions must be developed and implemented to further prevent and reduce lead exposure.
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              Lead poisoning.

              Herbert Needleman (2004)
              Understanding of lead toxicity has advanced substantially over the past three decades, and focus has shifted from high-dose effects in clinically symptomatic individuals to the consequences of exposure at lower doses that cause no symptoms, particularly in children and fetuses. The availability of more sensitive analytic methods has made it possible to measure lead at much lower concentrations. This advance, along with more refined epidemiological techniques and better outcome measures, has lowered the least observable effect level until it approaches zero. As a consequence, the segment of the population who are diagnosed with exposure to toxic levels has expanded. At the same time, environmental efforts, most importantly the removal of lead from gasoline, have dramatically reduced the amount of lead in the biosphere. The remaining major source of lead is older housing stock. Although the cost of lead paint abatement is measured in billions of dollars, the monetized benefits of such a Herculean task have been shown to far outweigh the costs.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Interdiscip Toxicol
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Interdiscip Toxicol
                Journal ID (publisher-id): ITX
                Title: Interdisciplinary Toxicology
                Publisher: Slovak Toxicology Society SETOX
                ISSN (Print): 1337-6853
                ISSN (Electronic): 1337-9569
                Publication date (Print): June 2012
                Publication date (Electronic): June 2012
                Volume: 5
                Issue: 2
                Pages: 47-58
                Affiliations
                School of Biotechnology, Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal, M.P. INDIA
                Author notes
                Correspondence address: Gagan Flora, M.Tech School of Biotechnology, Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal, M.P. INDIA. E-MAIL: gaganflora@ 123456gmail.com
                Article
                Publisher ID: ITX-5-047
                DOI: 10.2478/v10102-012-0009-2
                PMC ID: 3485653
                PubMed ID: 23118587
                SO-VID: 3e3c0f92-833d-4146-9a10-b08cc467bd1d
                Copyright © Copyright © 2012 Slovak Toxicology Society SETOX
                License:

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                Date received : 02 April 2012
                Date revision received : 13 April 2012
                Date accepted : 20 April 2012
                Categories
                Subject: Review Article

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Toxicology
                Keywords: reactive oxygen species,lead toxicity,antioxidants
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Toxicology
                Keywords: reactive oxygen species, lead toxicity, antioxidants

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