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      Evolutionary aspects of anxiety disorders Translated title: Aspectos evolucionistas de los trastornos de ansiedad Translated title: Aspects évolutifs des troubles de l'anxiété

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          Abstract

          Danger and harm are avoided by strategic decisions made at all three levels of the triune forebrain: rational (neomammalian), emotional (paleomammalian), and instinctive (reptilian). This applies also to potential harm from conspecifics, which leads to a choice between escalating and de-escalating strategies. Anxiety is a component of de-escalating strategies mediated by the paleomammalian and reptilian forebrains. When the neomammalian (rational) brain fails to deal with the threat of conspecific danger, these more primitive de-escalating strategies may be activated and may present as anxiety disorders. The capacity for concealment of anxiety and other forms of negative affect has also evolved, and excessive concealment may lead to psychopaihology by breaking the negative feedback loop of excessive motivation, leading to impaired performance, leading to signals of distress, and leading to reduced exhortation to succeed on the part of parents and teachers; this situation is illustrated by a model based on the Yerkes-Dodson law.

          Translated abstract

          El daño y el peligro se evitan a través de decisiones estratégicas que se producen en los tres niveles de la tríada del prosencéfalo: nivel racional (proveniente de los neomamíferos), nivel emocional (proveniente de los paleomamíferos) y nivel instintivo (proveniente de los reptiles). El peligro potencial de los congéneres, sigue este mismo tipo de decisión estratégica con un posible elección entre una escalada de agresividad o de sumisión. La ansiedad es un componente de la estrategia de sumisión que se produce en la parte del prosencéfalo proveniente de los paleomamíferos y de los reptiles. Cuando la parte del cerebro proveniente de los neomamíferos (racional) no es capaz de afrontar con éxito una situación de amenaza de congéneres, otras estrategias de sumisión más primitivas pueden activarse y se presentan como trastornos de ansiedad. La capacidad de disimular la ansiedad y otras formas de afecto negativo también ha evolucionado. El disimulo excesivo puede conducir a fenómenos psicopatológicos al interrumpir el feed back negativo de la motivación excesiva, lo que conduce a un deterioro del rendimiento, signos de distrésy reducción de la incitación al éxito de parte de padres y profesores; esta situación se ilustra medíante un modelo que se basa en la ley de Yerkes-Dodson.

          Translated abstract

          L'évitement du danger et des risques de préjudice s'effectue au travers de décisions stratégiques prises aux trois niveaux du prosencéphale triun : niveaux rationnel (néomammalien), émotionnel (paléomammalien) et instinctif (reptilien). Ceci s'applique aussi à l'agression potentielle venant des congénères, ce qui conduit à un choix entre une stratégie d'escalade de violence ou de soumission. L'anxiété est une composante des stratégies de soumission médiée par les prosencéphales paléomammalien et reptilien. Quand le cerveau néomammalien (rationnel) ne réussit pas à circonscrire la menace issue d'un congénère, ces stratégies de soumission plus primitives peuvent être activées et se présenter comme des troubles anxieux. La capacité de dissimulation de l'anxiété et d'autres formes de sentiments négatifs a aussi évolué, et une dissimulation excessive peut conduire à une psychologie pathologique en interrompant la boucle du rétrocontrôle négatif d'une motivation excessive, conduisant à des performances altérées, à des signaux de détresse, à une diminution de l'incitation à réussir de la part des parents et des professeurs ; cette situation est illustrée par un modèle basé sur la loi de Yerkes-Dodson.

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          Comorbidity of mood and anxiety disorders.

          This article reviews data on the prevalence of panic, social phobia, generalized anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder, and research documenting the comorbidity of these disorders with major depression (MDD). These anxiety disorders are frequently comorbid with MDD, and 50-60% of individuals with MDD report a lifetime history of one or more of these anxiety disorders. The anxiety disorders are also highly correlated with one another, and approximately one-quarter to one-half of individuals with each of the anxiety disorders report a lifetime history of an alcohol or substance use disorder. Anxiety disorders rarely exist in isolation, with several studies reporting that over 90% of individuals with anxiety disorders have a lifetime history of other psychiatric problems. Implications for research are discussed, including the potential benefit of using combined categorical and dimensional rating scale approaches in future genetic, biochemical, neuroimaging, and treatment studies. The clinical implications of the findings are also discussed, and the results of recent clinical trials summarized. Available data suggests selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are the first-line pharmacological treatment for these disorders, and that newer serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors show significant promise, especially for comorbid cases. Comorbidity among depression and anxiety disorders is associated with greater symptom severity, and a considerably higher incidence of suicidality. Increased public awareness about these disorders and the availability of effective treatments is sorely needed.
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            Relationship of anhedonia and anxiety to social rank, defeat and entrapment.

            There is good evidence to suggest that depression is highly correlated with perceptions of low rank and subordinate status (i.e. feeling inferior, low-self esteem, feeling that others look down on the self, and submissive behaviour). However, it is possible for people to feel inferior and anxious, and behave submissively but not necessarily be depressed. More recently two other processes, defeat and entrapment, have attracted attention as possible processes linked specifically to depression and anhedonia. This research explored the relationship of these variables (social rank variables and defeat and entrapment) to two measures of hedonic tone (low positive affectivity and anhedonia) and anxiety in both a clinical and student population. All variables were strongly associated with lowered hedonic tone and anxiety. However, partial correlations, and a structural equation model fitted to the data from combined groups, suggests that perceptions of defeat play a specifically important role in anhedonia as measured by low positive affect. Framed within an evolutionary model the data suggest that the mechanisms which evolved to help animals accommodate and respond to defeats may have important regulatory effects over positive affect, reducing exploration of and engagement with the environment.
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              Behavior and physiology of social stress and depression in female cynomolgus monkeys.

              The hypothesis that social subordination is stressful, and results in a depressive response in some individuals, was examined in socially housed female cynomolgus monkeys. Social status was manipulated such that half of the previously subordinate females became dominant and half of the previously dominant females became subordinate. Current subordinates hypersecreted cortisol, were insensitive to negative feedback, and had suppressed reproductive function. Current subordinates received more aggression, engaged in less affiliation, and spent more time alone than dominants. Furthermore, they spent more time fearfully scanning the social environment and displayed more behavioral depression than dominants. Current subordinates with a history of social subordination were preferentially susceptible to a behavioral depression response. The results of this experiment suggest that the stress of social subordination causes hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and ovarian dysfunction, and support the hypothesis that chronic, low-intensity social stress may result in depression in susceptible individuals.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Department of Psychiatry, South Downs Health NHS Trust, Brighton General Hospital, Brighton, UK
                Journal
                Dialogues Clin Neurosci
                Dialogues Clin Neurosci
                Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
                Les Laboratoires Servier (France )
                1294-8322
                1958-5969
                September 2003
                September 2003
                : 5
                : 3
                : 223-236
                Affiliations
                Department of Psychiatry, South Downs Health NHS Trust, Brighton General Hospital, Brighton, UK
                Author notes
                Article
                10.31887/DCNS.2003.5.3/jprice
                3181631
                22033473
                3f0dcb8d-3754-4c53-905b-8b2838f96111
                Copyright: © 2003 LLS

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                Categories
                Basic Research

                Neurosciences
                de-escalating strategy,yerkes-dodson law,triune brain,evolution,behavioral ecology,depressive disorder,agoraphobia,anxiety disorder

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