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      Regulation of glucose metabolism from a liver-centric perspective

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          Abstract

          Glucose homeostasis is tightly regulated to meet the energy requirements of the vital organs and maintain an individual's health. The liver has a major role in the control of glucose homeostasis by controlling various pathways of glucose metabolism, including glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. Both the acute and chronic regulation of the enzymes involved in the pathways are required for the proper functioning of these complex interwoven systems. Allosteric control by various metabolic intermediates, as well as post-translational modifications of these metabolic enzymes constitute the acute control of these pathways, and the controlled expression of the genes encoding these enzymes is critical in mediating the longer-term regulation of these metabolic pathways. Notably, several key transcription factors are shown to be involved in the control of glucose metabolism including glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver. In this review, we would like to illustrate the current understanding of glucose metabolism, with an emphasis on the transcription factors and their regulators that are involved in the chronic control of glucose homeostasis.

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          Most cited references49

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          Nuclear Receptors, RXR, and the Big Bang.

          Isolation of genes encoding the receptors for steroids, retinoids, vitamin D, and thyroid hormone and their structural and functional analysis revealed an evolutionarily conserved template for nuclear hormone receptors. This discovery sparked identification of numerous genes encoding related proteins, termed orphan receptors. Characterization of these orphan receptors and, in particular, of the retinoid X receptor (RXR) positioned nuclear receptors at the epicenter of the "Big Bang" of molecular endocrinology. This Review provides a personal perspective on nuclear receptors and explores their integrated and coordinated signaling networks that are essential for multicellular life, highlighting the RXR heterodimer and its associated ligands and transcriptional mechanism. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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            FoxOs at the crossroads of cellular metabolism, differentiation, and transformation.

            Forkhead transcription factors of the FoxO subfamily are emerging as a shared component among pathways regulating diverse cellular functions, such as differentiation, metabolism, proliferation, and survival. Their transcriptional output is controlled via a two-tiered mechanism of phosphorylation and acetylation. Modest alterations of this balance can result in profound effects. The gamut of phenotypes runs from protection against diabetes and predisposition to neoplasia, conferred by FoxO loss of function, to increased cellular survival and a marked catabolic response associated with gain of function.
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              Regulation of mouse sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c gene (SREBP-1c) by oxysterol receptors, LXRalpha and LXRbeta.

              The liver X receptors (LXRs) are members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily that are bound and activated by oxysterols. These receptors serve as sterol sensors to regulate the transcription of gene products that control intracellular cholesterol homeostasis through catabolism and transport. In this report, we describe a novel LXR target, the sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c gene (SREBP-1c), which encodes a membrane-bound transcription factor of the basic helix-loop-helix-leucine zipper family. SREBP-1c expression was markedly increased in mouse tissues in an LXR-dependent manner by dietary cholesterol and synthetic agonists for both LXR and its heterodimer partner, the retinoid X receptor (RXR). Expression of the related gene products, SREBP-1a and SREBP-2, were not increased. Analysis of the mouse SREBP-1c gene promoter revealed an RXR/LXR DNA-binding site that is essential for this regulation. The transcriptional increase in SREBP-1c mRNA by RXR/LXR was accompanied by a similar increase in the level of the nuclear, active form of the SREBP-1c protein and an increase in fatty acid synthesis. Because this active form of SREBP-1c controls the transcription of genes involved in fatty acid biosynthesis, our results reveal a unique regulatory interplay between cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Exp Mol Med
                Exp. Mol. Med
                Experimental & Molecular Medicine
                Nature Publishing Group
                1226-3613
                2092-6413
                March 2016
                11 March 2016
                1 March 2016
                : 48
                : 3
                : e218
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Division of Life Sciences, College of Life Sciences & Biotechnology, Korea University , Seoul, 136-713, Korea
                Author notes
                [* ]Division of Life Sciences, College of Life Sciences & Biotechnology, Korea University , 145 Anam-Ro, Seongbuk-Gu, Seoul, 136-713, Korea. E-mail: koohoi@ 123456korea.ac.kr
                Article
                emm2015122
                10.1038/emm.2015.122
                4892876
                26964834
                4057af68-f28f-4176-a6e9-0aa5ad5f9f25
                Copyright © 2016 KSBMB.

                This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International License. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

                History
                : 20 November 2015
                : 01 December 2015
                : 03 December 2015
                Categories
                Review

                Molecular medicine
                Molecular medicine

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