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      Thinking about thinking: A coordinate-based meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies of metacognitive judgements

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          Abstract

          Metacognition supports reflection upon and control of other cognitive processes. Despite metacognition occupying a central role in human psychology, its neural substrates remain underdetermined, partly due to study-specific differences in task domain and type of metacognitive judgement under study. It is also unclear how metacognition relates to other apparently similar abilities that depend on recursive thought such as theory of mind or mentalising. Now that neuroimaging studies of metacognition are more prevalent, we have an opportunity to characterise consistencies in neural substrates identified across different analysis types and domains. Here we used quantitative activation likelihood estimation methods to synthesise findings from 47 neuroimaging studies on metacognition, divided into categories based on the target of metacognitive evaluation (memory and decision-making), analysis type (judgement-related activation, confidence-related activation, and predictors of metacognitive sensitivity), and, for metamemory judgements, temporal focus (prospective and retrospective). A domain-general network, including medial and lateral prefrontal cortex, precuneus, and insula was associated with the level of confidence in self-performance in both decision-making and memory tasks. We found preferential engagement of right anterior dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in metadecision experiments and bilateral parahippocampal cortex in metamemory experiments. Results on metacognitive sensitivity were inconclusive, likely due to fewer studies reporting this contrast. Finally, by comparing our results to meta-analyses of mentalising, we obtain evidence for common engagement of the ventromedial and anterior dorsomedial prefrontal cortex in both metacognition and mentalising, suggesting that these regions may support second-order representations for thinking about the thoughts of oneself and others.

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          FSL.

          FSL (the FMRIB Software Library) is a comprehensive library of analysis tools for functional, structural and diffusion MRI brain imaging data, written mainly by members of the Analysis Group, FMRIB, Oxford. For this NeuroImage special issue on "20 years of fMRI" we have been asked to write about the history, developments and current status of FSL. We also include some descriptions of parts of FSL that are not well covered in the existing literature. We hope that some of this content might be of interest to users of FSL, and also maybe to new research groups considering creating, releasing and supporting new software packages for brain image analysis. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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            How do you feel--now? The anterior insula and human awareness.

            The anterior insular cortex (AIC) is implicated in a wide range of conditions and behaviours, from bowel distension and orgasm, to cigarette craving and maternal love, to decision making and sudden insight. Its function in the re-representation of interoception offers one possible basis for its involvement in all subjective feelings. New findings suggest a fundamental role for the AIC (and the von Economo neurons it contains) in awareness, and thus it needs to be considered as a potential neural correlate of consciousness.
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              The role of the medial frontal cortex in cognitive control.

              Adaptive goal-directed behavior involves monitoring of ongoing actions and performance outcomes, and subsequent adjustments of behavior and learning. We evaluate new findings in cognitive neuroscience concerning cortical interactions that subserve the recruitment and implementation of such cognitive control. A review of primate and human studies, along with a meta-analysis of the human functional neuroimaging literature, suggest that the detection of unfavorable outcomes, response errors, response conflict, and decision uncertainty elicits largely overlapping clusters of activation foci in an extensive part of the posterior medial frontal cortex (pMFC). A direct link is delineated between activity in this area and subsequent adjustments in performance. Emerging evidence points to functional interactions between the pMFC and the lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC), so that monitoring-related pMFC activity serves as a signal that engages regulatory processes in the LPFC to implement performance adjustments.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Brain Neurosci Adv
                Brain Neurosci Adv
                BNA
                spbna
                Brain and Neuroscience Advances
                SAGE Publications (Sage UK: London, England )
                2398-2128
                13 November 2018
                2018
                : 2
                : 2398212818810591
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London, UK
                [2 ]Yale Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
                [3 ]Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, University College London, London, UK
                [4 ]Max Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, University College London, London, UK
                Author notes
                [*]Stephen M. Fleming, Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, University College London, 12 Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK. Email: stephen.fleming@ 123456ucl.ac.uk
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0233-4891
                Article
                10.1177_2398212818810591
                10.1177/2398212818810591
                6238228
                31742235
                41c320e2-7e3d-4ac6-8e13-f32d7e4c380d
                © The Author(s) 2018

                This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License ( http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages ( https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).

                History
                : 21 December 2017
                : 28 September 2018
                Funding
                Funded by: Wellcome Trust, FundRef https://doi.org/10.13039/100004440;
                Award ID: 203147/Z/16/Z
                Funded by: Wellcome Trust, FundRef https://doi.org/10.13039/100004440;
                Award ID: 206648/Z/17/Z
                Funded by: Royal Society, FundRef https://doi.org/10.13039/501100000288;
                Award ID: 206648/Z/17/Z
                Categories
                Review Article
                Custom metadata
                January-December 2018

                confidence,decision-making,mentalising,meta-analysis,metacognition,metamemory,prefrontal cortex

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