1
Introduction
In late 2019, a respiratory illness with severe pneumonia cases of unknown etiology
occurred in Wuhan, China, which spread rapidly across the world (Huang et al., 2020).
Soon after, it was discovered that a new coronavirus, named severe acute respiratory
syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is the cause of this illness (Gorbalenya et al.,
2020). Currently, the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID‐19) has infected people in virtually
all countries of the world, with over 100 million confirmed cases and >2.2 million
confirmed deaths (worldometers.info and World Health Organization, 2020), and this
pandemic has drastically affected public health and people’s lives globally (Kupferschmidt
and Cohen, 2020).
COVID-19 patients can be asymptomatic; however, SARS-CoV-2 infection can also promote
clinical manifestations ranging from mild to severe symptoms. The symptoms frequently
reported comprise fever (∼70%), dry cough (59-76%), and myalgia (38-69%) or fatigue
(14-70%), in contrast to the less common symptoms such as sputum production (28-33.7%),
hemoptysis (0.9-5%), headache (6-13%), diarrhea (3-10%) and vomiting (3-5%) (Guan
et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2020). Besides,
some cases of COVID-19 have presented with meningitis or encephalitis (6.1%) and Guillain-Barré
syndrome (1.4%) (Correia et al., 2020; Moriguchi et al., 2020). After the first week
of disease onset, patients can develop dyspnea and acute respiratory distress syndrome
(ARDS), leading to intensive care unit (ICU) admission. Due to severe respiratory
and hematological problems resulting from ARDS, death occurs in a significant percentage
of ICU admitted patients (Huang et al., 2020).
The SARS-CoV-2 infection can lead to multiple central nervous system (CNS)-related
symptoms, including headache, dizziness, convulsions, febrile seizures, and encephalitis
(Asadi-Pooya and Simani, 2020). Furthermore, COVID-19 patients have experienced taste
and smell dysfunction (Pallanti, 2020; Spinato et al., 2020; Xydakis et al., 2020).
Additionally, some studies showed that SARS-CoV-2 infection is associated with a high
prevalence of hypokalemia (Barkas et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2020; Mabillard et al.,
2020; Moreno-P et al., 2020). Severe (18%, <3 mmol/L) and mild (37%, 3–3.5 mmol/L)
low plasma potassium (K+) levels were reported in 55% of COVID-19 patients (Chen et
al., 2020). Notably, the degree of hypokalemia has been strongly associated with the
severity of COVID-19 and a high mortality rate. In addition, COVID-19 patients are
susceptible to pro-arrhythmic events related to electrolyte imbalance (Wu et al.,
2020).
SARS-CoV-2 likely reaches the CNS via olfactory nerves into the olfactory bulb or
through the subarachnoid space along olfactory nerves into the brain’s cerebrospinal
fluid compartment and then into the brain’s interstitial space. We hypothesize that
SARS-CoV-2 enters the subfornical organ (SFO) through the above routes as well as
the circulating blood since circumventricular organs (CVOs) such as the SFO lack the
blood-brain barrier, and infection of the SFO causes dysfunction of the hypothalamic
paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and supraoptic nucleus (SON), leading to hydroelectrolytic
disorder, such as hypokalemia. Given the critical role of SFO, PVN, and SON circuitry
in modulating hydroelectrolyte balance, we propose that SARS-CoV-2 infection of SFO-PVN-SON
disrupts the neuroendocrine control of hydromineral homeostasis in COVID-19 patients.
This review confers the neuroendocrine control of hydroelectrolytic balance, the current
evidence for different routes by which SARS-CoV-2 invades the CNS, and suggests mechanisms
by which the SFO-PVN-SON pathway dysfunction after SARS-CoV-2 infection results in
hydroelectrolytic disorder in COVID-19 patients.
2
Neuroendocrine control of hydroelectrolytic balance
A well-vascularized SFO is a sensory CVO, responsible for detecting peripheral circulating
signals involved in the regulation of cardiovascular processes and fluid and blood
pressure balance by influencing the release of specific hormones such as angiotensin
and vasopressin (Black et al., 2018; Coble et al., 2015, 2014; Ferguson and Bains,
1996; Ishibashi and Nicolaidis, 1981). In addition, SFO sends efferent projections
to regions protected by the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in the hypothalamic autonomic
and neuroendocrine control centers, such as the PVN having a role in maintaining the
hydroelectrolytic balance (Anderson et al., 2001; Gutman et al., 1986; Tanaka et al.,
1985; Wright et al., 1993). Therefore, SARS-CoV-2 infection-related dysfunction of
the SFO-PVN pathway could result in hypokalemia in COVID-19 patients.
Classically, the intracellular concentration of K+ is higher than extracellular [K+]
in eukaryotic cells. Such regulation is imperative for protein synthesis and maintenance
of cell volume maintained by Na-K-ATPase activity (Stone et al., 2016). The Na-K-ATPase
pump is responsible for creating an electrochemical K+ gradient that determines the
membrane potential and provides energy for the action potential, muscle contractility,
and ion channel activity (McDonough and Youn, 2017; Youn, 2013). In addition, [K+]
homeostasis is also interrelated with dietary K+ intake and K+ excretion (Giebisch,
1998; Xu et al., 2017). In order to keep K+ concentrations within the physiological
pattern (3.8 to 5 mM), K+ excretion is physiologically tightly regulated (Giebisch
et al., 2007). Decreased K+ levels in the extracellular fluid alter the cell membrane
polarization, which results in dysfunction of the electrical excitability of the cell
(McDonough and Youn, 2017). Therefore, the regulation of [K+] homeostasis is crucial
for several vital functions in the body based on integrative physiology properties.
Renal K+ excretion is mainly sustained by secretion along the distal nephron, especially
through the initial and cortical collecting duct (Giebisch et al., 2007). The kidney
K+ excretion is regulated by extracellular K+ levels under physiological conditions.
Frequently, dietary K+ intake increases extracellular K+ levels, which stimulates
renal K+ excretion by directly activating K+ secretion in the collecting duct (Gennari
and Segal, 2002; Youn, 2013). This secretion is determined by a set of factors, such
as acid-base balance, K+ metabolism, sodium balance, as well as the action of some
hormones, including vasopressin and aldosterone (Amorim et al., 2004). The effects
of SARS-CoV-2 in these related mechanisms remain unknown.
The putative causes of hypokalemia in patients with COVID-19 include elevated gastrointestinal
problems and urine loss. Gastrointestinal symptoms resulting from COVID-19 have been
reported in some patients, including vomiting and diarrhea (Gu et al., 2020; Huang
et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2020). However, the association between
severe hypokalemia and diarrhea was observed in only 29% of patients, implying that
hypokalemia is not the result of diarrhea alone (Chen et al., 2020). Thus, K+ gastrointestinal
loss is unlikely the leading cause of hypokalemia. On the other hand, Chen and colleagues
have also reported that patients with hypokalemia exhibited increased urinary K+ excretion
compared to control patients with normokalemia (Chen et al., 2020), suggesting that
increased urinary K+ loss is the major cause of hypokalemia in COVID-19 patients.
Aldosterone is the primary regulator of K+ levels. Most K+ excretion (>90%) is performed
by the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron of the kidney, while <10% of K+ excretion
is guaranteed by the aldosterone-sensitive distal colon (Giebisch, 1998; Giebisch
et al., 2007). It is noteworthy that the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron regulates
K+ excretion to match K+ intake. The increase in plasma K+ levels due to increased
intake stimulates the adrenal gland to secrete aldosterone, leading to renal K+ secretion
and excretion to restore normal plasma K+ levels (Todkar et al., 2015). Therefore,
changes in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) may be related to hypokalemia.
It has been reported that angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) is the main counter-regulator
of the RAAS, which is responsible for modulating blood pressure, blood volume, and
electrolyte balance (Santos et al., 2008). Naturally, RAAS is regulated by ACE1 and
ACE2, which increase (“activator” system) and decrease (“inhibitor” system) RAAS activity,
respectively (Alexandre et al., 2020; Vaduganathan et al., 2020). SARS-CoV-2 invasion
of the kidney can lead to degradation of ACE2 and increased ACE1 function, which,
in turn, could result in increased RAAS activity (Santos et al., 2008). Intensified
RAAS activity can lead to a secondary increase in aldosterone and consequent renal
K+ excretion (Chen et al., 2020; Rocha et al., 1999).
Furthermore, vasopressin (ADH) may also contribute to K+ homeostasis. ADH is produced
by the PVN and supraoptic nucleus (SON) of the hypothalamus and transported to the
posterior pituitary through the hypothalamic-neurohypophyseal system, and subsequently
released into the systemic circulation to modulate the hydromineral homeostasis (Cocco
et al., 2017). For distal nephron K+ secretion, ADH stimulates the V1 (apical membrane)
and V2 (basolateral membrane) receptors, activates phospholipase C (PLC)/Ca2+/PKC
and adenylate cyclase/cAMP/PKA signaling pathways, respectively, therefore acting
on low and high conductance K+ channels on the apical membrane (Amorim and Malnic,
2000; Amorim et al., 2004; Barreto-Chaves and De Mello-Aires, 1997; Cassola et al.,
1993; Musa-Aziz et al., 2002; Nonoguchi et al., 1995; Wheatley et al., 1998; Yoshitomi
et al., 1996). Previous reports have shown that some COVID-19 patients have displayed
a syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SiADH) (Habib et al.,
2020; Mabillard and Sayer, 2020; Yousaf et al., 2020). The most common consequence
of SiADH is hyponatremia (Dhawan et al., 1992), which is seen in COVID-19 patients
(Habib et al., 2020; Yousaf et al., 2020). However, SiADH could also increase K+ excretion
(Gowrishankar et al., 1996; Musch and Decaux, 2019).
We propose that SARS-CoV-2 infection of neurons in the SFO, PVN, and SON leads to
dysfunction of these regions due to either viral-mediated neurodegeneration or neuroinflammation.
SARS-CoV-2 infection in SFO neurons likely disrupts the stimulus from SFO to PVN and
SON to produce ADH, whereas SARS-CoV-2 infection of PVN and SON likely interferes
with the release of ADH into the posterior pituitary. These changes can eventually
lead to hypokalemia and hydroelectrolytic imbalance in COVID-19 patients.
Besides, the sympathetic autonomic system and the release of cortisol can influence
hypokalemia. SARS-CoV-2 infection can increase sympathetic activity via changes in
blood gases and immunoinflammatory factors (Porzionato et al., 2020). Autonomic activation
has direct adrenergic effects on RAAS, which increases aldosterone secretion and contributes
to the loss of K+ (Darbar et al., 1996; Goldstein, 2020; Gordon et al., 1967; Nayyar
et al., 2017). One study also showed a relationship between the mortality of COVID-19
patients with increased plasma cortisol levels (Tan et al., 2020). Cortisol activates
renal mineralocorticoid receptors and increases K+ excretion (Cushing's syndrome symptoms)
(Funder, 2005; Gomez-Sanchez, 2014). Another plausible alternative is that the peripheral
infection induced by COVID-19 increases the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines
such as IL-6 (Han et al., 2020). The cytokine IL-6 activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical
(HPA) axis and induces the synthesis and secretion of aldosterone, ADH, and cortisol,
which can contribute to hypokalemia (González-Hernández et al., 2006; Päth et al.,
1997). Therefore, hypokalemia in patients with COVID-19 is likely a result of synergy
between central and peripheral factors.
3
Routes by which SARS-CoV-2 enters CNS
Several viruses have been shown to reach the CNS using different routes, including
the anterograde transport through olfactory nerves into the olfactory bulb and blood
circulation (Desforges et al., 2014; Durrant et al., 2016). Viruses likely also enter
through the subarachnoid space along olfactory nerves passing through the cribriform
plate because of the communication between the nasal lymph compartment located in
the submucosa of olfactory and respiratory epithelium and ethmoidal lymphatics and
the brain’s cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) compartment (Johnston et al., 2004; Zakharov
et al., 2004). Once viruses are in the subarachnoid space, CSF flow can facilitate
their spread into the entire brain through the interstitial space (Shetty and Zanirati,
2020), as subarachnoid CSF passes into deeper regions of the brain rapidly alongside
the perivascular spaces (Iliff et al., 2012). Upon entering the interstitial space,
viruses likely enter neurons or any neural cell expressing ACE2.
SARS-CoV, a beta-coronavirus with 79% of homology with SARS-CoV-2, was detected in
the brain of 75% of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) patients. SARS-CoV’s
presence was especially seen in the hypothalamus and the cortex (Gu et al., 2005).
Several studies have shown that SARS-CoV-2 can invade the human and animal brain (Conde
Cardona et al., 2020; Mesci et al., 2020; Song et al., 2020b, 2020a). A study has
also provided evidence of SARS-CoV-2 invasion of neurons in human brain organoids
and mice overexpressing human ACE2, as well as in postmortem COVID-19 patient brain
samples (Song et al., 2021). In these studies, the authors observed a unique hypermetabolic
state in SARS-CoV-2-infected neurons and local vascular changes. SARS-CoV-2 preferentially
infects neurons in 3D human brain organoids after 2 days of in vitro exposure, triggering
dysregulation and hyperphosphorylation of the tau protein as well as neurodegeneration
(Ramani et al., 2020). In addition, SARS-CoV-2 invaded neurons in iPSC-derived human
brain organoids and killed cortical neurons, and promoted impaired synaptogenesis
(Mesci et al., 2020). Furthermore, SARS-CoV-2 infected cerebral choroid plexus epithelium,
damaging the blood-cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) barrier in human brain organoids (Pellegrini
et al., 2020). Immunological changes have been identified in CSF of COVID-19 patients
with neurological damage, indicating neuroinvasion of SARS-CoV-2 (Alexopoulos et al.,
2020; Song et al., 2020a).
Fig. 1
illustrates the two routes by which SARS-CoV-2 can access the CNS. Anterograde transport
through olfactory nerves is one of the suggested routes to reach the olfactory bulb
and then the rest of the CNS (Durrant et al., 2016; Butowt and Bilinska, 2020; Conde
Cardona et al., 2020). It is noteworthy that the olfactory bulb has efferent projections
to the PVN (Guevara-Aguilar et al., 1988). Such trans-neuronal transmission could
occur due to the neurons’ capability to transport viruses using proteins such as dynein
and kinesin in retrograde and anterograde directions (Bohmwald et al., 2018). After
2 days of intranasal inoculation of SARS-CoV-2 in golden Syrian hamsters, acute inflammation
was observed in the olfactory epithelium (Zhang et al., 2020). Moreover, these authors
showed that SARS-CoV-2 could invade nasopharyngeal pseudo-columnar ciliated respiratory
epithelial cells, mature and immature olfactory neurons, and the cells sustentacular,
contributing to the olfactory dysfunction of COVID-19. Although there is enough evidence
for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in the olfactory system, the viral antigens have not
yet been detected so far in the olfactory bulb (Bryche et al., 2020; Zhang et al.,
2020). Therefore, it is tempting to suggest that viruses mostly enter the brain through
the subarachnoid space along olfactory nerves into the brain’s cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) compartment, as described in the earlier section.
Fig. 1
A schematic drawing of the SARS-CoV-2 invasion pathways in the brain.
SARS-CoV-2 can access the brain via the olfactory nerve or blood circulation. (A)
In route 1, the virus is carried by the axons of the olfactory sensory neurons into
the OLB towards the PVN. SARS-CoV-2 is transported to the cytoplasm mediated by ACE2
and proteases in PVN. Subsequently, the viral RNA is replicated, transcribed, and
translated by viral proteins inside the cell. The viral protein and RNA are assembled
to constitute a new virion to be released in the neuronal membrane. (B) In route 2,
the SARS-CoV-2 moves from blood to extracellular fluid in circumventricular organs.
This virus can enter SFO neurons through ACE2. Axonal projections from the SFO synapse
on PVN and SON neurons, which regulates the hydroelectrolytic balance. SARS-CoV-2
infection can disrupt the SFO and PVN functions, leading to hydroelectrolytic imbalance.
ACE2, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2; OLB, bulb olfactory; PVN, paraventricular hypothalamic
nucleus; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; SFO, subfornical
organ; SON, supraoptic hypothalamic nucleus.
Fig. 1
The possibility of SARS-CoV-2 reaching the brain via blood circulation has also been
suggested. However, the precise pathway is yet to be explored. The BBB protects the
major part of the brain, and this diffusion barrier is capable of blocking the influx
of the most blood-borne components to the cerebral interstitial fluid (Ballabh et
al., 2004). However, the CVOs are specific brain regions allowing the entry of components
from the blood without the need to cross the BBB (Ballabh et al., 2004). The typical
feature of CVO is the presence of high permeability and fenestrated capillaries in
a brain region that includes the neurohypophysis, the SFO, the median eminence, the
vascular organ of the lamina terminalis, the subcommissural organ, the pineal gland,
the choroid plexus, and the area postrema (Bodiga et al., 2013; Duvernoy and Risold,
2007; Ganong, 2000; Johnson and Gross, 1993; Simpson, 1981). A study has suggested
that the expected positive result for real-time RT-PCR to SARS-CoV-2 in plasma is
∼15% (Huang et al., 2020), implying the possibility of spreading the SARS-CoV-2 via
circulating blood is marginal. However, the lack of SARS-COV-2 in the plasma of most
COVID-19 patients could be due to a short span of viral presence in the circulating
blood. Indeed, a recent study in a ferret animal model reported that SARS-CoV-2 is
present in the blood circulation and the CVO only in the acute phase of COVID-19 (Kim
et al., 2020) before the seroconversion by plasma SARS-CoV-2-binding IgM and IgG antibodies
from day 7 until day 20 after symptom onset (Thevarajan et al., 2020). Taken together,
it appears that SARS-CoV-2 can enter the brain through several routes. Since SARS-CoV-2
could enter CVO through blood, CSF, or efferent projections from the olfactory bulb,
CVO is likely one of the first brain regions to get infected by SARS-CoV-2. Examination
of the CVO in post-mortem brain tissues from COVID-19 patients would likely provide
additional insights.
4
Characteristics that promote SARS-CoV-2 infection
Considering the high potential of SARS-CoV-2 to reach the extracellular fluid of CVO,
it is critical to draw a parallel between classical host cell infection by this virus
and the cellular characteristics of the SFO area, and PVN of the hypothalamus. SARS-CoV-2
has an irregular elliptic shape discriminated by crown-like spikes on the surface
and a diameter around 130 nm (Fathi, 2020). The virus particle is characterized by
a positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome and proteins such as spike (S), envelope
(E), membrane (M), and nucleocapsid (N). The proteins S, M, and E are anchored in
the viral envelope, a phospholipid bilayer derived from the host cell membrane. Alternatively,
the N protein interacts with the viral RNA into the core of the virion (Fehr and Perlman,
2015). The proteolytic activation of S glycoprotein is an elementary condition to
viral entry. Generally, the S glycoprotein is cleaved by proteolytic proteins in the
region between the S1 and S2 subunits, remaining non-covalently restrained in a prefusion
conformation. The SARS-CoV-2 entry is functionally mediated by the viral S1 subunit
of transmembrane S glycoproteins by the attachment with the ACE2 receptor in host
cells. The ACE2 is known as the functional receptor of SARS-CoV-2 (Du et al., 2009;
Kong et al., 1997; Lu et al., 2020; Wrapp et al., 2020). This transmembrane protein
is formed by three domains: (i) the extracellular domain, which can interact with
several ligands as SARS-CoV-2 in extracellular fluid, (ii) the intermediate domain
connects the extracellular and intracellular milieus, and (iii) the intracellular
cytoplasmatic domain (Jia et al., 2009; Peng et al., 2011). Distributed over many
human tissues, ACE2 is profoundly expressed in the epithelium of the airway, vascular
endothelium, lung, kidney, intestine, testis, heart, and brain (Donoghue et al., 2000;
Hamming et al., 2004; Harmer et al., 2002). Indeed, it has already been reported that
ACE2 is expressed in SFO, the vascular organ of the lamina terminalis, pituitary gland,
median eminence, and area postrema, as well as PVN (Doobay et al., 2007). Subsequently,
the S2 domain promotes the viral fusion mechanism's activation to enter into the host
cells (Kong et al., 1997). Several proteases expressed in neuronal cells and extracellular
liquid are capable of mediating the SARS-CoV-2 activation. The transmembrane protease/serine-type
2 (TMPRSS-2) is a trypsin-like serine protease attached to the cellular surface described
as a critical protease promoting SARS-CoV-2 entry into the cell (Hoffmann et al.,
2020; Qian et al., 2013). The TMPRSS-2 is also expressed in hypothalamic neurons (Ubuka
et al., 2018). Thus, it is likely that PVN and SFO are territories where the SARS-CoV-2
can easily access neurons.
After the internalization of SARS-CoV-2, the viral genome is released in the cytoplasm
(Lai and Stohlman, 1981). Some genomic RNAs are translated into nonstructural proteins
(nsps) that trigger the replicase-transcriptase complex responsible for RNA synthesis,
replication, and transcription of sub-genomic RNAs (Sethna et al., 1991). Subsequently,
the genomic RNA of SARS-CoV-2 is transcribed into negative-strand RNA, which is used
as a template for the synthesis of positive-sense genomic RNAs and subgenomic RNAs
(Fehr and Perlman, 2015), to be used downstream of the replicase polyproteins (Sethna
et al., 1991; Siu et al., 2008). The structural proteins S, E, and M, translated from
subgenomic RNAs, are then inserted into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus
to encapsulate viral genomes in mature virions (Kuo and Masters, 2013; Sethna et al.,
1991). Then, the virions are transported to the cell surface in vesicles and released
by exocytosis (Fig. 2
). The host cells infected by SARS-CoV-2 can occasionally activate cellular lysis
(Jia et al., 2005; Sethna et al., 1991; Ye and Hogue, 2007; Zhou et al., 2020), leading
to overflow of virions and release of cytoplasmic ionic content that can affect adjacent
neurons. In summary, we propose that, through routes described earlier, SARS-CoV-2
infects SFO-PVN-SON neurons, which alters their physiological role due to changes
in neuronal function promoted by viral replication, neurodegeneration, or neuroinflammation.
The SFO is a classical nucleus that modulates cardiovascular regulations and hydromineral
homeostasis (Ch’ng and Lawrence, 2019). Besides, the SFO synapses on PVN and SON neurons,
a well-established pathway for autonomic and neuroendocrine modulation. These neuronal
connections also contribute to the negative feedback action of ADH, which maintains
plasmatic water balance and plasmatic ions, like sodium and K+ ([hydromineral homeostasis]
(Washburn et al., 1999). Thus, disruption of SFO-PVN-SON activity could result in
hydroelectrolytic disorder.
Fig. 2
A schematic pathway of SARS-CoV-2 infection in SFO and PVN neurons.
SARS-CoV-2 in the extracellular fluid is an essential determinant of viral infection.
After the proteolytic activation of SARS-CoV-2 by proteases (TMPRSS), the S glycoprotein
binds to the ACE2 in SFO and PVN neurons. The ACE2 mediates the entry of virion by
fusion membrane. In the cytoplasm, SARS-CoV-2 delivers its single-stranded RNA that
can be translated into viral protein or replicated. The Golgi complex assembles the
viral protein and RNA to constitute a new virion in the Golgi and is released in the
plasma membrane of the neuron. ACE2, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2; ECF, extracellular
fluid; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; ERGIC, ER-Golgi intermediate compartment; ICF, intracellular
fluid; PVN, paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory
syndrome coronavirus 2; SFO, subfornical organ; TMPRSS, transmembrane protease/serine.
Fig. 2
5
Conclusions and future perspectives
We propose the involvement of SFO-PVN-SON network-based mechanisms for hydroelectrolytic
disorder in COVID-19 patients. The SARS-CoV-2 infection could also exacerbate the
HPA axis's activation, increase the secretion of ADH and aldosterone, and induce sympathetic
hyperactivation. Collectively, these factors contribute directly or indirectly to
the loss of K+, resulting in hypokalemia. Nonetheless, additional investigations in
animal models of COVID-19 are required to fully comprehend the routes by which SARS-CoV-2
accesses the CVOs and other CNS regions at different time-points after the infection.
Furthermore, careful examination of CVOs in post-mortem brain tissues from COVID-19
patients will be required to assess the extent of neurodegeneration and/or neuroinflammation
in SFO, PVN, and SON vis-à-vis other brain regions.
Declaration of Competing Interest
There is no conflict of interest.