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      The first gravitational-wave source from the isolated evolution of two 40-100 Msun stars

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          Abstract

          The merger of two massive 30 Msun black holes has been detected in gravitational waves (1,GW150914). This discovery validates recent predictions (2-4) that massive binary black holes would constitute the first detection. However, previous calculations have not sampled the relevant binary black hole progenitors---massive, low-metallicity binary stars---with sufficient accuracy and input physics to enable robust predictions to better than several orders of magnitude (5-10). Here we report a suite of high-precision numerical simulations of binary black hole formation via the evolution of isolated binary stars, providing a framework to interpret GW150914 and predict the properties of subsequent binary black hole gravitational-wave events. Our models imply that these events form in an environment where the metallicity is less than 10 percent of solar; have initial masses of 40-100 Msun; and interact through mass transfer and a common envelope phase. Their progenitors likely form either at 2 Gyr, or somewhat less likely, at 11 Gyr after the Big Bang. Most binary black holes form without supernova explosions, and their spins are nearly unchanged since birth, but do not have to be parallel. The classical field formation of binary black holes proposed in this study, with low natal kicks and restricted common envelope evolution, produces 40 times more binary black holes than dynamical formation channels involving globular clusters (11) and is comparable to the rate from homogeneous evolution channels (12-15). Our calculations predict detections of about 1,000 black hole mergers per year with total mass of 20-80 Msun once second generation ground-based gravitational wave observatories reach full sensitivity.

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          Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger

          On September 14, 2015 at 09:50:45 UTC the two detectors of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory simultaneously observed a transient gravitational-wave signal. The signal sweeps upwards in frequency from 35 to 250 Hz with a peak gravitational-wave strain of \(1.0 \times 10^{-21}\). It matches the waveform predicted by general relativity for the inspiral and merger of a pair of black holes and the ringdown of the resulting single black hole. The signal was observed with a matched-filter signal-to-noise ratio of 24 and a false alarm rate estimated to be less than 1 event per 203 000 years, equivalent to a significance greater than 5.1 {\sigma}. The source lies at a luminosity distance of \(410^{+160}_{-180}\) Mpc corresponding to a redshift \(z = 0.09^{+0.03}_{-0.04}\). In the source frame, the initial black hole masses are \(36^{+5}_{-4} M_\odot\) and \(29^{+4}_{-4} M_\odot\), and the final black hole mass is \(62^{+4}_{-4} M_\odot\), with \(3.0^{+0.5}_{-0.5} M_\odot c^2\) radiated in gravitational waves. All uncertainties define 90% credible intervals.These observations demonstrate the existence of binary stellar-mass black hole systems. This is the first direct detection of gravitational waves and the first observation of a binary black hole merger.
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            Cosmic Star Formation History

            Over the past two decades, an avalanche of data from multiwavelength imaging and spectroscopic surveys has revolutionized our view of galaxy formation and evolution. Here we review the range of complementary techniques and theoretical tools that allow astronomers to map the cosmic history of star formation, heavy element production, and reionization of the Universe from the cosmic "dark ages" to the present epoch. A consistent picture is emerging, whereby the star-formation rate density peaked approximately 3.5 Gyr after the Big Bang, at z~1.9, and declined exponentially at later times, with an e-folding timescale of 3.9 Gyr. Half of the stellar mass observed today was formed before a redshift z = 1.3. About 25% formed before the peak of the cosmic star-formation rate density, and another 25% formed after z = 0.7. Less than ~1% of today's stars formed during the epoch of reionization. Under the assumption of a universal initial mass function, the global stellar mass density inferred at any epoch matches reasonably well the time integral of all the preceding star-formation activity. The comoving rates of star formation and central black hole accretion follow a similar rise and fall, offering evidence for co-evolution of black holes and their host galaxies. The rise of the mean metallicity of the Universe to about 0.001 solar by z = 6, one Gyr after the Big Bang, appears to have been accompanied by the production of fewer than ten hydrogen Lyman-continuum photons per baryon, a rather tight budget for cosmological reionization.
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              Prospects for Observing and Localizing Gravitational-Wave Transients with Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo

              We present a possible observing scenario for the Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo gravitational-wave detectors over the next decade, with the intention of providing information to the astronomy community to facilitate planning for multi-messenger astronomy with gravitational waves. We determine the expected sensitivity of the network to transient gravitational-wave signals, and study the capability of the network to determine the sky location of the source. We report our findings for gravitational-wave transients, with particular focus on gravitational-wave signals from the inspiral of binary neutron-star systems, which are considered the most promising for multi-messenger astronomy. The ability to localize the sources of the detected signals depends on the geographical distribution of the detectors and their relative sensitivity, and 90% credible regions can be as large as thousands of square degrees when only two sensitive detectors are operational. Determining the sky position of a significant fraction of detected signals to areas of 5 to 20 square degrees will require at least three detectors of sensitivity within a factor of ~2 of each other and with a broad frequency bandwidth. Should the third LIGO detector be relocated to India as expected, a significant fraction of gravitational-wave signals will be localized to a few square degrees by gravitational-wave observations alone.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                2016-02-14
                2016-06-22
                Article
                10.1038/nature18322
                1602.04531
                42b1dafa-2c09-43fd-977e-08e9d1e2ac13

                http://arxiv.org/licenses/nonexclusive-distrib/1.0/

                History
                Custom metadata
                Nature, published on June 23, 2016. Substantial changes. Note the updated LIGO figure at: http://www.syntheticuniverse.org/stvsgwo.html
                astro-ph.HE

                High energy astrophysical phenomena
                High energy astrophysical phenomena

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