THE IMPORTANCE OF MOSQUITO BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS TO MALARIA CONTROL IN AFRICA

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Abstract

Over the past decade the use of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs), in combination with improved drug therapies, indoor residual spraying (IRS), and better health infrastructure, has helped reduce malaria in many African countries for the first time in a generation. However, insecticide resistance in the vector is an evolving threat to these gains. We review emerging and historical data on behavioral resistance in response to LLINs and IRS. Overall the current literature suggests behavioral and species changes may be emerging, but the data are sparse and, at times unconvincing. However, preliminary modeling has demonstrated that behavioral resistance could have significant impacts on the effectiveness of malaria control. We propose seven recommendations to improve understanding of resistance in malaria vectors. Determining the public health impact of physiological and behavioral insecticide resistance is an urgent priority if we are to maintain the significant gains made in reducing malaria morbidity and mortality.

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Most cited references 103

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Pyrethroid resistance in African anopheline mosquitoes: what are the implications for malaria control?

Hilary Ranson, Raphael N'Guessan, Jonathan Lines … (2011)

The use of pyrethroid insecticides in malaria vector control has increased dramatically in the past decade through the scale up of insecticide treated net distribution programmes and indoor residual spraying campaigns. Inevitably, the major malaria vectors have developed resistance to these insecticides and the resistance alleles are spreading at an exceptionally rapid rate throughout Africa. Although substantial progress has been made on understanding the causes of pyrethroid resistance, remarkably few studies have focused on the epidemiological impact of resistance on current malaria control activities. As we move into the malaria eradication era, it is vital that the implications of insecticide resistance are understood and strategies to mitigate these effects are implemented. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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Emergence of artemisinin-resistant malaria on the western border of Thailand: a longitudinal study

Aung Pyae Phyo, Aung Phyo, Standwell Nkhoma … (2012)

Summary Background Artemisinin-resistant falciparum malaria has arisen in western Cambodia. A concerted international effort is underway to contain artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum, but containment strategies are dependent on whether resistance has emerged elsewhere. We aimed to establish whether artemisinin resistance has spread or emerged on the Thailand–Myanmar (Burma) border. Methods In malaria clinics located along the northwestern border of Thailand, we measured six hourly parasite counts in patients with uncomplicated hyperparasitaemic falciparum malaria (≥4% infected red blood cells) who had been given various oral artesunate-containing regimens since 2001. Parasite clearance half-lives were estimated and parasites were genotyped for 93 single nucleotide polymorphisms. Findings 3202 patients were studied between 2001 and 2010. Parasite clearance half-lives lengthened from a geometric mean of 2·6 h (95% CI 2·5–2·7) in 2001, to 3·7 h (3·6–3·8) in 2010, compared with a mean of 5·5 h (5·2–5·9) in 119 patients in western Cambodia measured between 2007 and 2010. The proportion of slow-clearing infections (half-life ≥6·2 h) increased from 0·6% in 2001, to 20% in 2010, compared with 42% in western Cambodia between 2007 and 2010. Of 1583 infections genotyped, 148 multilocus parasite genotypes were identified, each of which infected between two and 13 patients. The proportion of variation in parasite clearance attributable to parasite genetics increased from 30% between 2001 and 2004, to 66% between 2007 and 2010. Interpretation Genetically determined artemisinin resistance in P falciparum emerged along the Thailand–Myanmar border at least 8 years ago and has since increased substantially. At this rate of increase, resistance will reach rates reported in western Cambodia in 2–6 years. Funding The Wellcome Trust and National Institutes of Health.

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Increased proportions of outdoor feeding among residual malaria vector populations following increased use of insecticide-treated nets in rural Tanzania

Tanya Russell, Nicodem Govella, Salum Azizi … (2011)

Background Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) represent the front-line tools for malaria vector control globally, but are optimally effective where the majority of baseline transmission occurs indoors. In the surveyed area of rural southern Tanzania, bed net use steadily increased over the last decade, reducing malaria transmission intensity by 94%. Methods Starting before bed nets were introduced (1997), and then after two milestones of net use had been reached-75% community-wide use of untreated nets (2004) and then 47% use of ITNs (2009)-hourly biting rates of malaria vectors from the Anopheles gambiae complex and Anopheles funestus group were surveyed. Results In 1997, An. gambiae s.l. and An. funestus mosquitoes exhibited a tendency to bite humans inside houses late at night. For An. gambiae s.l., by 2009, nocturnal activity was less (p = 0.0018). At this time, the sibling species composition of the complex had shifted from predominantly An. gambiae s.s. to predominantly An. arabiensis. For An. funestus, by 2009, nocturnal activity was less (p = 0.0054) as well as the proportion biting indoors (p < 0.0001). At this time, An. funestus s.s. remained the predominant species within this group. As a consequence of these altered feeding patterns, the proportion (mean ± standard error) of human contact with mosquitoes (bites per person per night) occurring indoors dropped from 0.99 ± 0.002 in 1997 to 0.82 ± 0.008 in 2009 for the An. gambiae complex (p = 0.0143) and from 1.00 ± <0.001 to only 0.50 ± 0.048 for the An. funestus complex (p = 0.0004) over the same time period. Conclusions High usage of ITNs can dramatically alter African vector populations so that intense, predominantly indoor transmission is replaced by greatly lowered residual transmission, a greater proportion of which occurs outdoors. Regardless of the underlying mechanism, the residual, self-sustaining transmission will respond poorly to further insecticidal measures within houses. Additional vector control tools which target outdoor biting mosquitoes at the adult or immature stages are required to complement ITNs and IRS.

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Author and article information

Contributors

: Role: Associate Editor

Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): Evolution

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Evolution

Journal ID (publisher-id): evo

Title: Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution

Publisher: Blackwell Publishing Inc (Malden, USA )

ISSN (Print): 0014-3820

ISSN (Electronic): 1558-5646

Publication date (Print): April 2013

Volume: 67

Issue: 4

Pages: 1218-1230

Affiliations

[1 ]Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health Bethesda, Maryland 20892-2220

[3 ]Malaria Drug Resistance & Chemotherapy Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research Brisbane, Queensland 4006, Australia

[4 ]Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical & Public Health Institute Basel CH-4002, Switzerland

[5 ]University of Basel Basel CH-4003, Switzerland

[6 ]Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London London W2 IPG, UK

[7 ]Vector Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine Liverpool, Merseyside L3 5QA, UK

[8 ]MRC Centre for Outbreak Analysis & Modelling, Department of Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London London W2 1PG, UK

[9 ]Department of Zoology, Oxford University South Parks Rd, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK

[10 ]Department of Entomology, North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina 27695

[11 ]Molecular & Biochemical Parasitology Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine Liverpool, Merseyside L3 5QA, UK

[12 ]Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine London WC1E 7HT, UK

[13 ]Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University New York, New York 10032

[14 ]School of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Durham University Durham DH 3LE, UK

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²E-mail: m.gatton@ 123456qut.edu.au

Article

DOI: 10.1111/evo.12063

PMC ID: 3655544

PubMed ID: 23550770

SO-VID: 43d55fb6-9aeb-4cf1-bc75-589cd5f44856

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Re-use of this article is permitted in accordance with the Creative Commons Deed, Attribution 2.5, which does not permit commercial exploitation.

History

Date received : 06 September 2012

Date accepted : 12 January 2013

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THE IMPORTANCE OF MOSQUITO BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS TO MALARIA CONTROL IN AFRICA

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Most cited references 103

Pyrethroid resistance in African anopheline mosquitoes: what are the implications for malaria control?

Emergence of artemisinin-resistant malaria on the western border of Thailand: a longitudinal study

Increased proportions of outdoor feeding among residual malaria vector populations following increased use of insecticide-treated nets in rural Tanzania

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