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      Environmental and Lifestyle Factors Associated with Overweight and Obesity in Perth, Australia

      , , , ,
      American Journal of Health Promotion
      American Journal of Health Promotion

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          Annual deaths attributable to obesity in the United States.

          Obesity is a major health problem in the United States, but the number of obesity-attributable deaths has not been rigorously estimated. To estimate the number of deaths, annually, attributable to obesity among US adults. Data from 5 prospective cohort studies (the Alameda Community Health Study, the Framingham Heart Study, the Tecumseh Community Health Study, the American Cancer Society Cancer Prevention Study I, and the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study) and 1 published study (the Nurses' Health Study) in conjunction with 1991 national statistics on body mass index distributions, population size, and overall deaths. Adults, 18 years or older in 1991, classified by body mass index (kg/m2) as overweight (25-30), obese (30-35), and severely obese (>35). Relative hazard ratio (HR) of death for obese or overweight persons. The estimated number of annual deaths attributable to obesity varied with the cohort used to calculate the HRs, but findings were consistent overall. More than 80% of the estimated obesity-attributable deaths occurred among individuals with a body mass index of more than 30 kg/m2. When HRs were estimated for all eligible subjects from all 6 studies, the mean estimate of deaths attributable to obesity in the United States was 280184 (range, 236111-341153). Hazard ratios also were calculated from data for nonsmokers or never-smokers only. When these HRs were applied to the entire population (assuming the HR applied to all individuals), the mean estimate for obesity-attributable death was 324 940 (range, 262541-383410). The estimated number of annual deaths attributable to obesity among US adults is approximately 280000 based on HRs from all subjects and 325000 based on HRs from only nonsmokers and never-smokers.
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            Socioeconomic status differences in recreational physical activity levels and real and perceived access to a supportive physical environment.

            Spatial access to recreational facilities and perceptions of the neighborhood environment and physical activity levels were examined by the socioeconomic status of area of residence (SES). A cross-sectional survey of adults (18-59 years) (n = 1,803) stratified by SES using a geographic-based index was conducted. Respondents in low SES areas had superior spatial access to many recreational facilities, but were less likely to use them compared with those living in high SES areas. They were more likely to perceive that they had access to sidewalks and shops, but also perceived that their neighborhood was busier with traffic, less attractive, and less supportive of walking. After adjustment, respondents living in low SES areas were 36% less likely to undertake vigorous activity. While they were more likely to walk for transport, this was not statistically significant (OR, 1.27; 95% CI, 0.98-1.64), nor were other SES differences in walking for recreation and walking as recommended. Modifiable environmental factors were associated with walking and vigorous activity, especially perceived access to sidewalks and neighborhood attractiveness. Spatial access to attractive, public open space was associated with walking. Creating supportive environments--particularly sidewalks in attractive neighborhoods--has the potential to increase walking and vigorous activity.
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              The relative influence of individual, social and physical environment determinants of physical activity.

              Environmental determinants of health are receiving growing attention in the literature, although there is little empirical research in this area. The Study on Environmental and Individual Determinants of Physical Activity (known as the SEID project) was a social ecological project that examined the relative influence of individual, social environmental and physical environmental determinants of recreational physical activity. It involved a community survey of 1803 healthy workers and home-makers aged 18-59 years living in a 408 km2 area of metropolitan Perth, Western Australia. Physical environmental determinants were mainly conceptualised as spatial access to popular recreational facilities. Overall, 59% of respondents exercised as recommended. Recreational facilities located near home were used by more respondents than facilities located elsewhere. The most frequently used facilities were informal: the streets (45.6%); public open space (28.8%) and the beach (22.7%). The physical environment's directs the influence on exercising as recommended was found to be secondary to individual and social environmental determinants. Nevertheless, accessible facilities determined whether or not they were used and in this way, support and enhance the achievement of recommended levels of physical activity behaviour by providing opportunities. The results suggest that access to a supportive physical environment is necessary, but may be insufficient to increase recommended levels of physical activity in the community. Complementary strategies are required that aim to influence individual and social environmental factors. Given the popularity of walking in the community, it is recommended that greater emphasis be placed on creating streetscapes that enhance walking for recreation and transport.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                American Journal of Health Promotion
                Am J Health Promot
                American Journal of Health Promotion
                0890-1171
                2168-6602
                August 25 2016
                August 25 2016
                : 18
                : 1
                : 93-102
                Article
                10.4278/0890-1171-18.1.93
                44e6687a-f02c-411c-98b5-ecd989764168
                © 2016
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