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      Evidence for Phytoremediation and Phytoexcretion of NTO from Industrial Wastewater by Vetiver Grass

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          Abstract

          The use of insensitive munitions such as 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO) is rapidly increasing and is expected to replace conventional munitions in the near future. Various NTO treatment technologies are being developed for the treatment of wastewater from industrial munition facilities. This is the first study to explore the potential phytoremediation of industrial NTO-wastewater using vetiver grass ( Chrysopogon zizanioides L.). Here, we present evidence that vetiver can effectively remove NTO from wastewater, and also translocated NTO from root to shoot. NTO was phytotoxic and resulted in a loss of plant biomass and chlorophyll. The metabolomic analysis showed significant differences between treated and control samples, with the upregulation of specific pathways such as glycerophosphate metabolism and amino acid metabolism, providing a glimpse into the stress alleviation strategy of vetiver. One of the mechanisms of NTO stress reduction was the excretion of solid crystals. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis confirmed the presence of NTO crystals in the plant exudates. Further characterization of the exudates is in progress to ascertain the purity of these crystals, and if vetiver could be used for phytomining NTO from industrial wastewater.

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          Most cited references51

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          Lipid signalling in plant responses to abiotic stress.

          Lipids are one of the major components of biological membranes including the plasma membrane, which is the interface between the cell and the environment. It has become clear that membrane lipids also serve as substrates for the generation of numerous signalling lipids such as phosphatidic acid, phosphoinositides, sphingolipids, lysophospholipids, oxylipins, N-acylethanolamines, free fatty acids and others. The enzymatic production and metabolism of these signalling molecules are tightly regulated and can rapidly be activated upon abiotic stress signals. Abiotic stress like water deficit and temperature stress triggers lipid-dependent signalling cascades, which control the expression of gene clusters and activate plant adaptation processes. Signalling lipids are able to recruit protein targets transiently to the membrane and thus affect conformation and activity of intracellular proteins and metabolites. In plants, knowledge is still scarce of lipid signalling targets and their physiological consequences. This review focuses on the generation of signalling lipids and their involvement in response to abiotic stress. We describe lipid-binding proteins in the context of changing environmental conditions and compare different approaches to determine lipid-protein interactions, crucial for deciphering the signalling cascades.
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            Untargeted large-scale plant metabolomics using liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry.

            Untargeted metabolomics aims to gather information on as many metabolites as possible in biological systems by taking into account all information present in the data sets. Here we describe a detailed protocol for large-scale untargeted metabolomics of plant tissues, based on reversed phase liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF MS) of aqueous methanol extracts. Dedicated software, MetAlign, is used for automated baseline correction and alignment of all extracted mass peaks across all samples, producing detailed information on the relative abundance of thousands of mass signals representing hundreds of metabolites. Subsequent statistics and bioinformatics tools can be used to provide a detailed view on the differences and similarities between (groups of) samples or to link metabolomics data to other systems biology information, genetic markers and/or specific quality parameters. The complete procedure from metabolite extraction to assembly of a data matrix with aligned mass signal intensities takes about 6 days for 50 samples.
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              Phytoextraction of heavy metals by canola (Brassica napus) and radish (Raphanus sativus) grown on multicontaminated soil.

              Phytoextraction can provide an effective in situ technique for removing heavy metals from polluted soils. The experiment reported in this paper was undertaken to study the basic potential of phytoextraction of Brassica napus (canola) and Raphanus sativus (radish) grown on a multi-metal contaminated soil in the framework of a pot-experiment. Chlorophyll contents and gas exchanges were measured during the experiment; the heavy metal phytoextraction efficiency of canola and radish were also determined and the phytoextraction coefficient for each metal calculated. Data indicated that both species are moderately tolerant to heavy metals and that radish is more so than canola. These species showed relatively low phytoremediation potential of multicontaminated soils. They could possibly be used with success in marginally polluted soils where their growth would not be impaired and the extraction of heavy metals could be maintained at satisfying levels.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Academic Editor
                Role: Academic Editor
                Journal
                Molecules
                Molecules
                molecules
                Molecules
                MDPI
                1420-3049
                26 December 2020
                January 2021
                : 26
                : 1
                : 74
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Environmental Science and Natural Resources Program, School of Science, Navajo Technical University, Crownpoint, NM 87313, USA; aroychowdhury@ 123456navajotech.edu
                [2 ]Department of Civil, Environmental and Ocean Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA; pallabi.mkrje@ 123456gmail.com (P.M.); spanja1@ 123456stevens.edu (S.P.)
                [3 ]Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA; rupdatta@ 123456mtu.edu
                [4 ]Center for Environmental Systems, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA; christod@ 123456stevens.edu
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: dsarkar@ 123456stevens.edu ; Tel.: +1-201-2168028
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6277-0404
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0383-8525
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4117-0511
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1978-1276
                Article
                molecules-26-00074
                10.3390/molecules26010074
                7796298
                33375266
                44eddf09-82b0-46cf-af75-f85a9ee2fa91
                © 2020 by the authors.

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 26 November 2020
                : 22 December 2020
                Categories
                Article

                insensitive munitions,3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (nto),industrial wastewater,vetiver grass,phytoremediation,phytoextraction

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