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      Molecular and Morphometric Characterization of Acanthamoeba spp. from Different Water Sources of Northwest Iran as a Neglected Focus, Co-Bordered With the Country of Iraq

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          Abstract

          Background

          Acanthamoeba spp. is a free-living opportunistic protozoan parasites, which can be found in tap, fresh and bottled mineral waters, contact lens solutions, soil etc.

          Objectives

          The present study is aimed to determine the Acanthamoeba spp. on the basis of their morpho-molecular aspects in different water sources of the West Azerbaijan province, Northwest of Iran.

          Methods

          In this cross-sectional study, 60 water samples were collected from rivers and tap waters during June to September 2015. The water samples were filtered through a cellulose nitrate filter and cultured on non-nutrient agar medium. The extracted DNAs were amplified and some ampliqons were sequenced using partial 18S rRNA for genotyping and phylogenetic analyses.

          Results

          Twenty-seven (45%) out of 60 water samples were positive to Acanthamoeba spp. using both culture and morphological examinations. In addition, 24 (40%) out of 27 positive samples in culture method were confirmed by PCR to be Acanthamoeba spp.

          Conclusions

          A relatively high prevalence of Acanthamoeba spp. in rivers reflects a risk alert for threatening human health in the region. However, well hygienic status of the tap waters considering Acanthamoeba spp. cannot be ignored in western co-border regions of Iran-Iraq. This study can also serve as a platform for further explorations of water sources in Iran and neighboring countries.

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          Most cited references15

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          Epidemiological characteristics and risk factors of hepatocellular carcinoma.

          Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the major cancers in the world. There is a striking variation in HCC incidence rates between various countries, with a highest-to-lowest ratio of 112.5 for males and 54.7 for females. The high-risk populations are clustered in sub-Saharan Africa and eastern Asia. The male-to-female ratio for HCC ranges from < 1 to 6.4 and mostly from 2 to 4. There exist significant variations in the incidence of HCC among different ethnic groups living in the same area and among migrants of the same ethnic groups living in different areas. The age curves of HCC are significantly different in various countries, suggesting variability in exposure to risk factors. Chronic carriers of hepatitis B and C viruses (HBV and HCV, respectively) have an increased risk of HCC. The relative and attributable HCC risk of HBV and HCV carrier status varies in different countries. There exists a synergistic interaction on HCC between the two viruses. Aflatoxin exposure, cigarette smoking, heavy alcohol consumption, low vegetable intake, inorganic arsenic ingestion, radioactive thorium dioxide exposure, iron overload and the use of oral contraceptives and anabolic steroids have been documented as HCC risk factors. Recent molecular epidemiological studies have shown that low serum retinol levels as well as elevated serum levels of testosterone, neu oncoprotein and aflatoxin B1-albumin adduct are associated with an increased HCC risk. There is a synergistic interaction on HCC between chronic HBV infection and aflatoxin exposure. Familial aggregation of HCC exists and a major susceptibility gene of HCC has been hypothesized. Patients of some genetic diseases are at an increased risk of HCC. The genetic polymorphisms of cytochrome P450 2E1 and 2D6 and arylamine N-acetyltransferase 2 are associated with the development of HCC. A dose-response relationship between aflatoxin exposure and HCC has been observed among chronic HBV carriers who have null genotypes of glutathione S-transferase M1 or T1, but not among those who have non-null genotypes. Human hepatocarcinogenesis is a multistage process with the involvement of a multifactorial aetiology. Gene-environment interactions are involved in the development of HCC in humans.
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            Acanthamoeba keratitis: the role of domestic tap water contamination in the United Kingdom.

            The incidence of acanthamoeba keratitis (AK) in the UK is some 15 times that in the United States and seven times that in Holland. To investigate reasons for this higher frequency, a study of the role of domestic tap water as a potential source of AK was undertaken. Tap outlets from the homes of 27 patients with culture-proven AK were sampled and cultured for free-living amoebae (FLA). For all Acanthamoeba isolates, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) and cytochrome oxidase (cox 1/2) sequence typing was performed to determine the similarity between corneal and tap water isolates. FLA, including Acanthamoeba, were isolated from 24 (89%) of 27 homes, and the presence within the homes varied significantly with tap water temperature and location: 19 (76%) of 25 bathroom sink cold taps sampled compared with 6 (24%) of 25 hot and 9 (47%) of 19 kitchen cold taps compared with 3 (16%) of 19 of hot kitchen taps. Acanthamoeba were isolated from 8 (30%) of 27 homes (five bathroom sink cold taps, one cloakroom cold tap, one bath, and one bedroom sink mixer [hot/cold] taps). In six cases, identical Acanthamoeba mtDNA profiles were found for the clinical and home tap water isolates. In keeping with UK plumbing practice, 24 of 27 homes had internal roof water storage tanks to supply domestic taps, but the mains fed the kitchen cold tap. Water storage tanks promote colonization of domestic water with FLA, including Acanthamoeba, and hence increase the risk of AK. This accounts for the significantly greater incidence of AK in the UK and supports advice to avoid using tap water in contact lens care routines.
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              Isolation and identification of pathogenic Acanthamoeba strains in Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain from water sources.

              A comprehensive survey to document the presence of free-living amoebae of the genus Acanthamoeba was conducted in tap water and sea water sources related to human environments in Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain. Acanthamoeba identification was based on the morphology of cyst and trophozoite forms and PCR amplification with a genus-specific primer pair. The pathogenic potential of Acanthamoeba isolates was characterized by temperature and osmotolerance assays and PCR reactions with two primer pairs related to Acanthamoeba pathogenesis. The results demonstrate the presence of potentially pathogenic strains in both sources. Thus, some of the amoebae in these aquatic habitats can act as opportunistic pathogens, could play a role in the diseases of aquatic organisms, and may present a risk to human health.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Jundishapur J Microbiol
                Jundishapur J Microbiol
                10.5812/jjm
                Kowsar
                Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology
                Kowsar
                2008-3645
                2008-4161
                18 October 2016
                November 2016
                : 9
                : 11
                : e38481
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Parasitology and Mycology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
                [2 ]Students’ Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
                [3 ]Immunology Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
                [4 ]Department of Laboratory Medicine, Ardabil Medical Sciences Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ardabil, Iran
                [5 ]Department of Biochemistry and Clinical Laboratories, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
                Author notes
                [* ]Corresponding author: Aram Khezri, Department of Parasitology and Mycology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran. Tel: +98-9145583850, Fax: +98-4133373745, E-mail: dr.aram66@ 123456yahoo.com
                Article
                10.5812/jjm.38481
                5240160
                4522a18a-fafa-4cf1-83fb-aac79ceadec9
                Copyright © 2016, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits copy and redistribute the material just in noncommercial usages, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 15 April 2016
                : 25 September 2016
                : 08 October 2016
                Categories
                Research Article

                west azerbaijan,water resources,pcr,iran,acanthamoeba
                west azerbaijan, water resources, pcr, iran, acanthamoeba

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