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      Diacetin, a reliable cue and private communication channel in a specialized pollination system

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          Abstract

          The interaction between floral oil secreting plants and oil-collecting bees is one of the most specialized of all pollination mutualisms. Yet, the specific stimuli used by the bees to locate their host flowers have remained elusive. This study identifies diacetin, a volatile acetylated glycerol, as a floral signal compound shared by unrelated oil plants from around the globe. Electrophysiological measurements of antennae and behavioural assays identified diacetin as the key volatile used by oil-collecting bees to locate their host flowers. Furthermore, electrophysiological measurements indicate that only oil-collecting bees are capable of detecting diacetin. The structural and obvious biosynthetic similarity between diacetin and associated floral oils make it a reliable cue for oil-collecting bees. It is easily perceived by oil bees, but can’t be detected by other potential pollinators. Therefore, diacetin represents the first demonstrated private communication channel in a pollination system.

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          Most cited references17

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          Generalization versus specialization in plant pollination systems.

          The long-standing notion that most angiosperm flowers are specialized for pollination by particular animal types, such as birds or bees, has been challenged recently on the basis of apparent widespread generalization in pollination systems. At the same time, biologists working mainly in the tropics and the species-rich temperate floras of the Southern hemisphere are documenting pollination systems that are remarkably specialized, often involving a single pollinator species. Current studies are aimed at understanding: (1) the ecological forces that have favoured either generalization or specialization in particular lineages and regions; (2) the implications for selection on floral traits and divergence of populations; and (3) the risk of collapse in plant-pollinator mutualisms of varying specificity.
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            Olfactory shifts parallel superspecialism for toxic fruit in Drosophila melanogaster sibling, D. sechellia.

            Olfaction in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is increasingly understood, from ligand-receptor-neuron combinations to their axonal projection patterns into the antennal lobe . Drosophila thus offers an excellent opportunity to study the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of olfactory systems. We compared the structure and function of the generalist D. melanogaster with that of specialist D. sechellia, which oviposits exclusively on morinda fruit . Our analyses show that whereas the fruit's headspace was dominated by acids, antennae responded most strongly to hexanoates. D. sechellia exhibited an extraordinarily strong response to methyl hexanoate (MeHex). Behaviorally, D. sechellia was much more attracted to these morinda fruit volatiles than was D. melanogaster. The high sensitivity to MeHex was paralleled by a 2.5x-3 x overrepresentation of MeHex neurons on the antenna and a concordant 2.9 x increase in volume of the corresponding glomerulus as compared to D. melanogaster. In addition, the MeHex neuron exhibited an extreme sensitivity down to femtograms of its ligand. In contrast, no peripherally mediated shift was found paralleling D. sechellia's increased attraction to acids. These findings are a demonstration of evolution acting at several levels in the olfactory circuitry in mediating a fruit fly's unique preference for fruit toxic to its sibling species .
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              Bees use honest floral signals as indicators of reward when visiting flowers.

              Pollinators visit flowers for rewards and should therefore have a preference for floral signals that indicate reward status, so called 'honest signals'. We investigated honest signalling in Brassica rapa L. and its relevance for the attraction of a generalised pollinator, the bumble bee Bombus terrestris (L.). We found a positive association between reward amount (nectar sugar and pollen) and the floral scent compound phenylacetaldehyde. Bumble bees developed a preference for phenylacetaldehyde over other scent compounds after foraging on B. rapa. When foraging on artificial flowers scented with synthetic volatiles, bumble bees developed a preference for those specific compounds that honestly indicated reward status. These results show that the honesty of floral signals can play a key role in their attractiveness to pollinators. In plants, a genetic constraint, resource limitation in reward and signal production, and sanctions against cheaters may contribute to the evolution and maintenance of honest signalling.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Sci Rep
                Sci Rep
                Scientific Reports
                Nature Publishing Group
                2045-2322
                06 August 2015
                2015
                : 5
                : 12779
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Salzburg , Hellbrunnerstr. 34, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
                [2 ]Department of Plant Systematics, University of Bayreuth , 95440 Bayreuth
                [3 ]School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Scottsville , Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
                [4 ]Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry , Weinberg 3, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
                [5 ]Botanical Garden München-Nymphenburg , Menzinger Str. 65, 80638 München, Germany
                Author notes
                Article
                srep12779
                10.1038/srep12779
                4526864
                46917455-4316-462c-9ea6-cae8a8d36608
                Copyright © 2015, Macmillan Publishers Limited

                This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

                History
                : 22 January 2015
                : 01 July 2015
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