Introduction
The term pesticide covers a wide range of compounds including insecticides, fungicides,
herbicides, rodenticides, molluscicides, nematicides, plant growth regulators and
others. Among these, organochlorine (OC) insecticides, used successfully in controlling
a number of diseases, such as malaria and typhus, were banned or restricted after
the 1960s in most of the technologically advanced countries. The introduction of other
synthetic insecticides – organophosphate (OP) insecticides in the 1960s, carbamates
in 1970s and pyrethroids in 1980s and the introduction of herbicides and fungicides
in the 1970s–1980s contributed greatly to pest control and agricultural output. Ideally
a pesticide must be lethal to the targeted pests, but not to non-target species, including
man. Unfortunately, this is not the case, so the controversy of use and abuse of pesticides
has surfaced. The rampant use of these chemicals, under the adage, “if little is good,
a lot more will be better” has played havoc with human and other life forms.
Production and usage of pesticides in India
The production of pesticides started in India in 1952 with the establishment of a
plant for the production of BHC near Calcutta, and India is now the second largest
manufacturer of pesticides in Asia after China and ranks twelfth globally (Mathur,
1999). There has been a steady growth in the production of technical grade pesticides
in India, from 5,000 metric tons in 1958 to 102,240 metric tons in 1998. In 1996–97
the demand for pesticides in terms of value was estimated to be around Rs. 22 billion
(USD 0.5 billion), which is about 2% of the total world market.
The pattern of pesticide usage in India is different from that for the world in general.
As can be seen in Figure 1, in India 76% of the pesticide used is insecticide, as
against 44% globally (Mathur, 1999). The use of herbicides and fungicides is correspondingly
less heavy. The main use of pesticides in India is for cotton crops (45%), followed
by paddy and wheat.
Figure 1
Consumption pattern of pesticides.
Benefits of pesticides
The primary benefits are the consequences of the pesticides' effects – the direct
gains expected from their use. For example the effect of killing caterpillars feeding
on the crop brings the primary benefit of higher yields and better quality of cabbage.
The three main effects result in 26 primary benefits ranging from protection of recreational
turf to saved human lives. The secondary benefits are the less immediate or less obvious
benefits that result from the primary benefits. They may be subtle, less intuitively
obvious, or of longer term. It follows that for secondary benefits it is therefore
more difficult to establish cause and effect, but nevertheless they can be powerful
justifications for pesticide use. For example the higher cabbage yield might bring
additional revenue that could be put towards children's education or medical care,
leading to a healthier, better educated population. There are various secondary benefits
identified, ranging from fitter people to conserved biodiversity.
Improving productivity
Tremendous benefits have been derived from the use of pesticides in forestry, public
health and the domestic sphere – and, of course, in agriculture, a sector upon which
the Indian economy is largely dependent. Food grain production, which stood at a mere
50 million tons in 1948–49, had increased almost fourfold to 198 million tons by the
end of 1996–97 from an estimated 169 million hectares of permanently cropped land.
This result has been achieved by the use of high-yield varieties of seeds, advanced
irrigation technologies and agricultural chemicals (Employment Information: Indian
Labour Statistics, 1994). Similarly outputs and productivity have increased dramatically
in most countries, for example wheat yields in the United Kingdom, corn yields in
the USA. Increases in productivity have been due to several factors including use
of fertiliser, better varieties and use of machinery. Pesticides have been an integral
part of the process by reducing losses from the weeds, diseases and insect pests that
can markedly reduce the amount of harvestable produce. Warren (1998) also drew attention
to the spectacular increases in crop yields in the United States in the twentieth
century. Webster et al. (1999) stated that “considerable economic losses” would be
suffered without pesticide use and quantified the significant increases in yield and
economic margin that result from pesticide use. Moreover, in the environment most
pesticides undergo photochemical transformation to produce metabolites which are relatively
non-toxic to both human beings and the environment (Kole et al., 1999).
Protection of crop losses/yield reduction
In medium land, rice even under puddle conditions during the critical period warranted
an effective and economic weed control practice to prevent reduction in rice yield
due to weeds that ranged from 28 to 48%, based on comparisons that included control
(weedy) plots (Behera and Singh, 1999). Weeds reduce yield of dry land crops (Behera
and Singh, 1999) by 37–79%. Severe infestation of weeds, particularly in the early
stage of crop establishment, ultimately accounts for a yield reduction of 40%. Herbicides
provided both an economic and labour benefit.
Vector disease control
Vector-borne diseases are most effectively tackled by killing the vectors. Insecticides
are often the only practical way to control the insects that spread deadly diseases
such as malaria, resulting in an estimated 5000 deaths each day (Ross, 2005). In 2004,
Bhatia wrote that malaria is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality
in the developing world and a major public health problem in India. Disease control
strategies are crucially important also for livestock.
Quality of food
In countries of the first world, it has been observed that a diet containing fresh
fruit and vegetables far outweigh potential risks from eating very low residues of
pesticides in crops (Brown, 2004). Increasing evidence (Dietary Guidelines, 2005)
shows that eating fruit and vegetables regularly reduces the risk of many cancers,
high blood pressure, heart disease, diabetes, stroke, and other chronic diseases.
Lewis et al. (2005) discussed the nutritional properties of apples and blueberries
in the US diet and concluded that their high concentrations of antioxidants act as
protectants against cancer and heart disease. Lewis attributed doubling in wild blueberry
production and subsequent increases in consumption chiefly to herbicide use that improved
weed control.
Other areas – transport, sport complex, building
The transport sector makes extensive use of pesticides, particularly herbicides. Herbicides
and insecticides are used to maintain the turf on sports pitches, cricket grounds
and golf courses. Insecticides protect buildings and other wooden structures from
damage by termites and woodboring insects.
Hazards of pesticides
Direct impact on humans
If the credits of pesticides include enhanced economic potential in terms of increased
production of food and fibre, and amelioration of vector-borne diseases, then their
debits have resulted in serious health implications to man and his environment. There
is now overwhelming evidence that some of these chemicals do pose a potential risk
to humans and other life forms and unwanted side effects to the environment (Forget,
1993; Igbedioh, 1991; Jeyaratnam, 1981). No segment of the population is completely
protected against exposure to pesticides and the potentially serious health effects,
though a disproportionate burden, is shouldered by the people of developing countries
and by high risk groups in each country (WHO, 1990). The world-wide deaths and chronic
diseases due to pesticide poisoning number about 1 million per year (Environews Forum,
1999).
The high risk groups exposed to pesticides include production workers, formulators,
sprayers, mixers, loaders and agricultural farm workers. During manufacture and formulation,
the possibility of hazards may be higher because the processes involved are not risk
free. In industrial settings, workers are at increased risk since they handle various
toxic chemicals including pesticides, raw materials, toxic solvents and inert carriers.
OC compounds could pollute the tissues of virtually every life form on the earth,
the air, the lakes and the oceans, the fishes that live in them and the birds that
feed on the fishes (Hurley et al., 1998). The US National Academy of Sciences stated
that the DDT metabolite DDE causes eggshell thinning and that the bald eagle population
in the United States declined primarily because of exposure to DDT and its metabolites
(Liroff, 2000). Certain environmental chemicals, including pesticides termed as endocrine
disruptors, are known to elicit their adverse effects by mimicking or antagonising
natural hormones in the body and it has been postulated that their long-term, low-dose
exposure is increasingly linked to human health effects such as immune suppression,
hormone disruption, diminished intelligence, reproductive abnormalities and cancer
(Brouwer et al., 1999; Crisp et al., 1998; Hurley et al., 1998)
A study on workers (N=356) in four units manufacturing HCH in India revealed neurological
symptoms (21%) which were related to the intensity of exposure (Nigam et al., 1993).
The magnitude of the toxicity risk involved in the spraying of methomyl, a carbamate
insecticide, in field conditions was assessed by the National Institute of Occupational
Health (NIOH) (Saiyed et al., 1992). Significant changes were noticed in the ECG,
the serum LDH levels, and cholinesterase (ChE) activities in the spraymen, indicating
cardiotoxic effects of methomyl. Observations confined to health surveillance in male
formulators engaged in production of dust and liquid formulations of various pesticides
(malathion, methyl parathion, DDT and lindane) in industrial settings of the unorganised
sector revealed a high occurrence of generalised symptoms (headache, nausea, vomiting,
fatigue, irritation of skin and eyes) besides psychological, neurological, cardiorespiratory
and gastrointestinal symptoms coupled with low plasma ChE activity (Gupta et al.,
1984).
Data on reproductive toxicity were collected from 1,106 couples when the males were
associated with the spraying of pesticides (OC, OP and carbamates) in cotton fields
(Rupa et al., 1991).A study in malaria spraymen was initiated to evaluate the effects
of a short-term (16 week) exposure in workers (N=216) spraying HCH in field conditions
(Gupta et al., 1982).
A study on those affected in the Seveso diaster of 1976 in Italy during the production
of 2,4,5 T, a herbicide, concluded that chloracne (nearly 200 cases with a definite
exposure dependence) was the only effect established with certainty as a result of
dioxin formation (Pier et al., 1998). Early health investigations including liver
function, immune function, neurologic impairment, and reproductive effects yielded
inconclusive results. An excess mortality from cardiovascular and respiratory diseases
was uncovered, possibly related to the psychosocial consequences of the accident in
addition to the chemical contamination. An excess of diabetes cases was also found.
Results of cancer incidence and mortality follow-up showed an increased occurrence
of cancer of the gastrointestinal sites and of the lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue.
Results cannot be viewed as conclusive, however, because of various limitations: few
individual exposure data, short latency period, and small population size for certain
cancer types. A similar study in 2001 observed no increase in all-cause and all-cancer
mortality. However, the results support the notion that dioxin is carcinogenic to
humans and corroborate the hypotheses of its association with cardiovascular- and
endocrine-related effects (Pier et al., 2001). During the Vietnam War, United States
military forces sprayed nearly 19 million gallons of herbicide on approximately 3.6
million acres of Vietnamese and Laotian land to remove forest cover, destroy crops,
and clear vegetation from the perimeters of US bases. This effort, known as Operation
Ranch Hand, lasted from 1962 to 1971. Various herbicide formulations were used, but
most were mixtures of the phenoxy herbicides 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)
and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T). Approximately 3 million Americans
served in the armed forces in Vietnam during the Vietnam War. Some of them (as well
as some Vietnamese combatants and civilians, and members of the armed forces of other
nations) were exposed to defoliant mixtures, including Agent Orange. There was evidence
on cancer risk of Vietnam veterans, workers occupationally exposed to herbicides or
dioxins (since dioxins contaminated the herbicide mixtures used in Vietnam), and of
the Vietnamese population (Frumkin, 2003).
Impact through food commodities
For determining the extent of pesticide contamination in the food stuffs, programs
entitled ‘Monitoring of Pesticide Residues in Products of Plant Origin in the European
Union’ started to be established in the European Union since 1996. In 1996, seven
pesticides (acephate, chlopyriphos, chlopyriphos-methyl, methamidophos, iprodione,
procymidone and chlorothalonil) and two groups of pesticides (benomyl group and maneb
group, i.e. dithiocarbamates) were analysed in apples, tomatoes, lettuce, strawberries
and grapes. An average of about 9 700 samples has been analysed for each pesticide
or pesticide group. For each pesticide or pesticide group, 5.2% of the samples were
found to contain residues and 0.31% had residues higher than the respective MRL for
that specific pesticide. Lettuce was the crop with the highest number of positive
results, with residue levels exceeding the MRLs more frequently than in any of the
other crops investigated. The highest value found in 1996 was for a compound of the
maneb group in lettuce which corresponded to a mancozeb residue of 118 mg/kg. In 1997,
13 pesticides (acephate, carbendazin, chlorothalonil, chlopyriphos, DDT, diazinon,
endosulfan, methamidophos, iprodione, metalaxyl, methidathion, thiabendazole, triazophos)
were assessed in five commodities (mandarins, pears, bananas,beans, and potatoes).
Some 6 000 samples were analysed. Residues of chlorpyriphos exceeded MRLs most often
(0.24%), followed by methamidophos (0.18%), and iprodione (0.13%). With regard to
the commodities investigated, around 34% contained pesticide residues at or below
the MRL, and 1% contained residues at levels above the MRL. In mandarins, pesticide
residues were most frequently found at levels at or below the MRL (69%), followed
by bananas (51%), pears (28%), beans (21%) and potatoes (9%). MRLs were exceeded most
often in beans (1.9%), followed by mandarins (1.8%), pears (1.3%), and bananas and
potatoes (0.5%). Estimation of the dietary intake of pesticide residues (based on
the 90th percentile) from the above-mentioned commodities, where the highest residue
levels of the respective pesticides were found, shows that there is no exceeding of
the ADI with all the pesticides and commodities studied (European Commission, 1999).
In 1998, four commodities (oranges, peaches, carrots, spinach) were analysed for 20
pesticides (acephate, benomyl group, chlopyriphos, chlopyriphos-methyl, deltamethrin,
maneb group, diazinon, endosulfan, methamidophos, iprodione, metalaxyl, methidathion,
thiabendazole, triazophos, permethrin, vinclozolin, lambdacyalothrin, pirimiphos-methyl,
mercabam). With regard to all four commodities investigated in 1998 (oranges, peaches,
carrots, spinach), about 32% contained residues of pesticides at or below MRL, and
2% above the MRL (1.8% for EU-MRLs, 0.4% for national MRLs). Residues at or below
the MRL were found most often in oranges (67%), followed by peaches (21%), carrots
(11%) and spinach (5%). MRL values were exceeded most often in spinach (7.3%), followed
by peaches (1.6%), carrots (1.2%)and oranges (0.7%). The intake of pesticide residues
has not exceeded the ADI in any case. It was found to be below 10% of the ADI for
all pesticides. The exposure ranges from 0.35% of the ADI for the benomyl group to
9.9% of the ADI for the methidathion group. In 1999, four commodities (cauliflower,
peppers, wheat grains, and melon) were analysed for the same 20 pesticides as in the
1998 study (European Commission, 2001). Overall, around 4700 samples were analysed.
Residues of methamidophos exceeded MRLs most often (8.7%), followed by the maneb group
(1.1%), thiabendazole (0.57%), acephate (0.41%) and the benomyl group (0.35%). The
MRL for methamidophos was exceeded most often in peppers and melons (18.7 and 3.7%,
respectively). The residues of the maneb group exceeded the MRL most often in cauliflower
(3.9%); residues of thiabendazole exceeded the MRL most often in melons (2.8% of the
melon samples). With regard to all the commodities investigated, around 22% of samples
contained residues of pesticides at or below the MRL and 8.7% above the MRL. Residues
at or below MRL were found most often in melons (32%), followed by peppers (24%),
wheat grains (21%) and cauliflower (17%). MRL values were exceeded most often in peppers
(19%), followed by melons (6.1%), cauliflower (3%) and wheat grains (0.5%). The intake
of pesticide residues did not exceed the ADI in any case. It was below 1.5% of the
ADI for all pesticides. The exposure ranged between 0.43% of the ADI for methamidophos
and 1.4% of the ADI for endosulfan. The intakes for the highest residue levels in
a composite sample for chlorpyriphos, deltamethrin, endosulfan and methidathion were
below the ARfD for adults. They range between 1.5% of the ARfD for deltamethrin and
67% of the ARfD for endosulfan (Nasreddine and Parent-Massin, 2002). In spite of food
contamination, most pesticide deaths recorded in hospital surveys are the result of
self-poisoning (Eddleston, 2000). The Global Burden of Disease Study 6 estimated that
798 000 people died from deliberate self-harm in 1990, over 75% of whom were from
developing countries (Murray and Lopez, 1996). More recent WHO estimates showed that
over 500 000 people died from self-harm in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific
during 2000 alone (WHO, 2001). Suicide is the commonest cause of death in young Chinese
women and Sri Lankan men and women (Murray and Lopez, 1996; Sri Lankan Ministry of
Health, 1995; WHO, 2001).
In India the first report of poisoning due to pesticides was from Kerala in 1958,
where over 100 people died after consuming wheat flour contaminated with parathion
(Karunakaran, 1958). This prompted the Special Committee on Harmful Effects of Pesticides
constituted by the ICAR to focus attention on the problem (Report of the Special Committee
of ICAR, 1972). In a multi-centric study to assess the pesticide residues in selected
food commodities collected from different states of the country (Surveillance of Food
Contaminants in India, 1993), DDT residues were found in about 82% of the 2205 samples
of bovine milk collected from 12 states. About 37% of the samples contained DDT residues
above the tolerance limit of 0.05 mg/kg (whole milk basis). The highest level of DDT
residues found was 2.2 mg/kg. The proportion of the samples with residues above the
tolerance limit was highest in Maharastra (74%), followed by Gujarat (70%), Andhra
Pradesh (57%), Himachal Pradesh (56%), and Punjab (51%). In the remaining states,
this proportion was less than 10%. Data on 186 samples of 20 commercial brands of
infants formulae showed the presence of residues of DDT and HCH isomers in about 70
and 94% of the samples with their maximum level of 4.3 and 5.7 mg/kg (fat basis) respectively.
Measurement of chemicals in the total diet provides the best estimates of human exposure
and of the potential risk. The risk of consumers may then be evaluated by comparison
with toxicologically acceptable intake levels. The average total DDT and BHC consumed
by an adult were 19.24 mg/day and 77.15 mg/day respectively (Kashyap et al., 1994).
Fatty food was the main source of these contaminants. In another study, the average
daily intake of HCH and DDT by Indians was reported to be 115 and 48 mg per person
respectively, which were higher than those observed in most of the developed countries
(Kannan et al., 1992).
Impact on environment
Pesticides can contaminate soil, water, turf, and other vegetation. In addition to
killing insects or weeds, pesticides can be toxic to a host of other organisms including
birds, fish, beneficial insects, and non-target plants. Insecticides are generally
the most acutely toxic class of pesticides, but herbicides can also pose risks to
non-target organisms.
Surface water contamination
Pesticides can reach surface water through runoff from treated plants and soil. Contamination
of water by pesticides is widespread. The results of a comprehensive set of studies
done by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) on major river basins across the country
in the early to mid- 90s yielded startling results. More than 90 percent of water
and fish samples from all streams contained one, or more often, several pesticides
(Kole et al; 2001). Pesticides were found in all samples from major rivers with mixed
agricultural and urban land use influences and 99 percent of samples of urban streams
(Bortleson and Davis, 1987–1995). The USGS also found that concentrations of insecticides
in urban streams commonly exceeded guidelines for protection of aquatic life (U.S.
Geological Survey, 1999). Twenty-three pesticides were detected in waterways in the
Puget Sound Basin, including 17 herbicides. According to USGS, more pesticides were
detected in urban streams than in agricultural streams (US Department of the Interior,
1995). The herbicides 2,4-D, diuron, and prometon, and the insecticides chlorpyrifos
and diazinon, all commonly used by urban homeowners and school districts, were among
the 21 pesticides detected most often in surface and ground water across the nation
(U.S. Geological Survey, 1998). Trifluralin and 2,4-D were found in water samples
collected in 19 out of the 20 river basins studied (Bevans et al., 1998; Fenelon et
al., 1998; Levings et al., 1998; Wall et al., 1998). The USGS also found that concentrations
of insecticides in urban streams commonly exceeded guidelines for protection of aquatic
life (U.S. Geological Survey, 1999). According to USGS, “in general more pesticides
were detected in urban streams than in agricultural streams”, (Bortleson and Davis,
1987–1995). The herbicide 2,4-D was the most commonly found pesticide, detected in
12 out of 13 streams. The insecticide diazinon, and the weed-killers dichlobenil,
diuron, triclopyr, and glyphosate were detected also in Puget Sound basin streams.
Both diazinon and diuron were found at levels exceeding concentrations recommended
by the National Academy of Sciences for the protection of aquatic life (Bortleson
and Davis, 1987–1995).
Ground water contamination
Groundwater pollution due to pesticides is a worldwide problem. According to the USGS,
at least 143 different pesticides and 21 transformation products have been found in
ground water, including pesticides from every major chemical class. Over the past
two decades, detections have been found in the ground water of more than 43 states
(Waskom, 1994). During one survey in India, 58% of drinking water samples drawn from
various hand pumps and wells around Bhopal were contaminated with Organo Chlorine
pesticides above the EPA standards (Kole and Bagchi, 1995). Once ground water is polluted
with toxic chemicals, it may take many years for the contamination to dissipate or
be cleaned up. Cleanup may also be very costly and complex, if not impossible (Waskom
1994; O'Neil, 1998; US EPA, 2001).
Soil contamination
A large number of transformation products (TPs) from a wide range of pesticides have
been documented (Barcelo' and Hennion, 1997; Roberts, 1998; Roberts and Hutson, 1999).
Not many of all possible pesticide TPs have been monitored in soil, showing that there
is a pressing need for more studies in this field. Persistency and movement of these
pesticides and their TPs are determined by some parameters, such as water solubility,
soil-sorption constant (Koc), the octanol/water partition coefficient (Kow), and half-life
in soil (DT50). Pesticides and TPs could be grouped into:(a) Hydrophobic, persistent,
and bioaccumulable pesticides that are strongly bound to soil. Pesticides that exhibit
such behavior include the organochlorine DDT, endosulfan, endrin, heptachlor, lindane
and their TPs. Most of them are now banned in agriculture but their residues are still
present. (b) Polar pesticides are represented mainly by herbicides but they include
also carbamates, fungicides and some organophosphorus insecticide TPs. They can be
moved from soil by runoff and leaching, thereby constituting a problem for the supply
of drinking water to the population. The most researched pesticide TPs in soil are
undoubtedly those from herbicides. Several metabolic pathways have been suggested,
involving transformation through hydrolysis, methylation, and ring cleavage that produce
several toxic phenolic compounds. The pesticides and their TPs are retained by soils
to different degrees, depending on the interactions between soil and pesticide properties.
The most influential soil characteristic is the organic matter content. The larger
the organic matter content, the greater the adsorption of pesticides and TPs. The
capacity of the soil to hold positively charged ions in an exchangeable form is important
with paraquat and other pesticides that are positively charged. Strong mineral acid
is required for extracting these chemicals, without any analytical improvement or
study reported in recent years. Soil pH is also of some importance. Adsorption increases
with decreasing soil pH for ionizable pesticides (e.g. 2,4-D,2,4,5-T, picloram, and
atrazine) (Andreu and Pico', 2004).
Effect on soil fertility (beneficial soil microorganisms)
Heavy treatment of soil with pesticides can cause populations of beneficial soil microorganisms
to decline. According to the soil scientist Dr. Elaine Ingham, “If we lose both bacteria
and fungi, then the soil degrades. Overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
have effects on the soil organisms that are similar to human overuse of antibiotics.
Indiscriminate use of chemicals might work for a few years, but after awhile, there
aren't enough beneficial soil organisms to hold onto the nutrients” (Savonen, 1997).
For example, plants depend on a variety of soil microorganisms to transform atmospheric
nitrogen into nitrates, which plants can use. Common landscape herbicides disrupt
this process: triclopyr inhibits soil bacteria that transform ammonia into nitrite
(Pell et al., 1998); glyphosate reduces the growth and activity of free-living nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in soil (Santos and Flores, 1995) and 2,4-D reduces nitrogen fixation by
the bacteria that live on the roots of bean plants (Arias and Fabra, 1993; Fabra et
al., 1997), reduces the growth and activity of nitrogen-fixing blue-green algae (Singh
and Singh, 1989; Tözüm-Çalgan and Sivaci-Güner, 1993), and inhibits the transformation
of ammonia into nitrates by soil bacteria (Frankenberger et al., 1991, Martens and
Bremner, 1993). Mycorrhizal fungi grow with the roots of many plants and aid in nutrient
uptake. These fungi can also be damaged by herbicides in the soil. One study found
that oryzalin and trifluralin both inhibited the growth of certain species of mycorrhizal
fungi (Kelley and South, 1978). Roundup has been shown to be toxic to mycorrhizal
fungi in laboratory studies, and some damaging effects were seen at concentrations
lower than those found in soil following typical applications (Chakravarty and Sidhu,
1987; Estok et al., 1989). Triclopyr was also found to be toxic to several species
of mycorrhizal fungi (Chakravarty and Sidhu, 1987) and oxadiazon reduced the number
of mycorrhizal fungal spores (Moorman, 1989).
Contamination of air, soil, and non-target vegetation
Pesticide sprays can directly hit non-target vegetation, or can drift or volatilize
from the treated area and contaminate air, soil, and non-target plants. Some pesticide
drift occurs during every application, even from ground equipment (Glotfelty and Schomburg,
1989). Drift can account for a loss of 2 to 25% of the chemical being applied, which
can spread over a distance of a few yards to several hundred miles. As much as 80–90%
of an applied pesticide can be volatilised within a few days of application (Majewski,
1995). Despite the fact that only limited research has been done on the topic, studies
consistently find pesticide residues in air. According to the USGS, pesticides have
been detected in the atmosphere in all sampled areas of the USA (Savonen, 1997). Nearly
every pesticide investigated has been detected in rain, air, fog, or snow across the
nation at different times of the year (U.S. Geological Survey, 1999). Many pesticides
have been detected in air at more than half the sites sampled nationwide. Herbicides
are designed to kill plants, so it is not surprising that they can injure or kill
desirable species if they are applied directly to such plants, or if they drift or
volatilise onto them. Many ester-formulation herbicides have been shown to volatilise
off treated plants with vapors sufficient to cause severe damage to other plants (Straathoff,
1986). In addition to killing non-target plants outright, pesticide exposure can cause
sublethal effects on plants. Phenoxy herbicides, including 2,4-D, can injure nearby
trees and shrubs if they drift or volatilise onto leaves (Dreistadt et al., 1994).
Exposure to the herbicide glyphosate can severely reduce seed quality (Locke et al.,
1995). It can also increase the susceptibility of certain plants to disease (Brammall
and Higgins, 1998). This poses a special threat to endangered plant species. The U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service has recognized 74 endangered plants that may be threatened
by glyphosate alone (U.S. EPA Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances, 1986). Exposure
to the herbicide clopyralid can reduce yields in potato plants (Lucas and Lobb, 1987).
EPA calculated that volatilisation of only 1% of applied clopyralid is enough to damage
non-target plants (US EPA, 1990). Some insecticides and fungicides can also damage
plants (Dreistadt et al., 1994). Pesticide damage to plants is commonly reported to
state agencies in the Northwest. (Oregon Dept. of Agriculture, 1999; Washington Dept.
of Health, 1999). Plants can also suffer indirect consequences of pesticide applications
when harm is done to soil microorganisms and beneficial insects. Pesticides including
those of new the generation, e.g., dacthal, chlorothalonil, chlorpyrifos, metolachlor,
terbufos and trifluralin have been detected in Arctic environmental samples (air,
fog, water, snow) (Rice and Cherniak, 1997), and (Garbarino et al., 2002). Other studies
have identified the ability of some of these compounds to undergo short-range atmospheric
transport (Muir et al., 2004) to ecologically sensitive regions such as the Chesapeake
Bay and the Sierra Nevada mountains (LeNoir et al., 1999; McConnell et al., 1997;
Harman-Fetcho et al., 2000, Thurman and Cromwell , 2000). One long-term study that
investigated pesticides in the atmosphere of British Columbia (BC), dating from 1996
(Belzer et al., 1998) showed that 57 chemicals were investigated at two sampling sites
(Agassiz and Abbotsford) in the Fraser Valley, from February 1996 until March 1997.
Atrazine, malathion, and diazinon, highly toxic chemicals identified as high-priority
pesticides by Verrin et al. (2004), were detected as early as the end of February
(72 pg/m3) until mid-October (253 pg/m3), with a peak concentration in mid-June of
42.7 ngm−3. Dichlorvos is a decomposition product of another pesticide, Naled (Dibrom)
(Hall et al., 1997). Captan and 2,4-D showed the highest concentrations and deposition
rates at these two sites, followed by dichlorvos and diazinon (Dosman and Cockcraft,
1989). Air concentrations of currently used pesticides in Alberta were investigated
in 1999 at four sampling sites that were chosen according to geography and pesticide
sales data (Kumar, 2001). Triallate and trifluralin were the two mostly detected pesticides
at the four sites. Insecticides (malathion, chlorpyrifos, diazinon and endosulfan)
were detected intermittently with concentrations in the range 20–780 pg/m3. South
of Regina, Saskatchewan, in 1989 and 1990, 2,4-D reached 3.9 and 3.6 ng/m3 at the
end of June (Waite et al., 2002a). Triallate, dicamba, bromoxynil concentrations were
also higher in 1989 (peak concentration of 4.2 ng/m3 in mid-June) compared with 1990
(600–700 pg/m3 in mid-June). In a more recent study, Waite et al. (2005) studied spatial
variations of selected herbicides on a threesite, 500km transect that included two
agricultural sites—Bratt's Lake, located 35 km southwest of Regina and Hafford to
the North—and a background site at Waskesiu. Some acid herbicides were also investigated
in South Tobacco Creek, Manitoba during 1993–1996. Once again, maximum concentrations
occurred during periods of local use (Rawn et al., 1999a). A neutral herbicide, atrazine,
was also investigated in 1995 (Rawn et al., 1998). It was first detected in mid-April,
peaked mid- June at about 300 pg/m3, and was detected until the end of October. The
insecticide dacthal was identified throughout the sampling periods in 1994, 1995 and
1996 (Rawn and Muir, 1999) even though it was not used in this area (<20–300 pg/m3).
Non-target organisms
Pesticides are found as common contaminants in soil, air, water and on non-target
organisms in our urban landscapes. Once there, they can harm plants and animals ranging
from beneficial soil microorganisms and insects, non-target plants, fish, birds, and
other wildlife. Chlorpyrifos, a common contaminant of urban streams (U.S. Geological
Survey, 1999), is highly toxic to fish, and has caused fish, kills in waterways near
treated fields or buildings (US EPA, 2000). Herbicides can also be toxic to fish.
According to the EPA, studies show that trifluralin, an active ingredient in the weed-killer
Snapshot, “is highly to very highly toxic to both cold and warm water fish” (U.S.
EPA, 1996). In a series of different tests it was also shown to cause vertebral deformities
in fish (Koyama, 1996). The weed-killers Ronstar and Roundup are also acutely toxic
to fish (Folmar et al., 1979; Shafiei and Costa, 1990). The toxicity of Roundup is
likely due to the high toxicity of one of the inert ingredients of the product (Folmar
et al., 1979). In addition to direct acute toxicity, some herbicides may produce sublethal
effects on fish that lessen their chances for survival and threaten the population
as a whole. Glyphosate or glyphosate-containing products can cause sublethal effects
such as erratic swimming and labored breathing, which increase the fish's chance of
being eaten (Liong et al., 1988). 2,4-D herbicides caused physiological stress responses
in sockeye salmon (McBride et al., 1981) and reduced the food-gathering abilities
of rainbow trout (Little, 1990). Several cases of pesticide poisoning of dolphins
have been reported worldwide. Because of their high trophic level in the food chain
and relatively low activities of drug-metabolising enzymes, aquatic mammals such as
dolphins accumulate increased concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (Tanabe
et al., 1988) and are thereby vulnerable to toxic effects from contaminant exposures.
Dolphins inhabiting riverine and estuarine ecosystems are particularly vulnerable
to the activities of humans because of the restricted confines of their habitat, which
is in close proximity to point sources of pollution. River dolphins are among the
world's most seriously endangered species. Populations of river dolphins have been
dwindling and face the threat of extinction; the Yangtze river dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer)
in China and the Indus river dolphin (Platanista minor) in Pakistan are already close
to extinction (Renjun, 1990; Perrin et al., 1989; Reeves et al., 1991; Reeves and
Chaudhry, 1998). In addition to habitat degradation (such as construction of dams)
(Reeves and Leatherwood, 1994), boat traffic, fishing, incidental and intentional
killings, and chemical pollution have been threats to the health of river dolphins
(Kannan et al., 1993b, 1994, 1997; Senthilkumar et al., 1999). Earlier studies reported
concentrations of heavy metals (Kannan et al., 1993), organochlorine pesticides and
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (Kannan et al., 1994), and butyltin compounds (Kannan
et al., 1997) in Ganges river dolphins and their prey. The continuing use of organochlorine
pesticides and PCBs in India is of concern (Kannan et al., 1992; Kannan et al., 1997a;
Kannan et al., 1997b; Tanabe et al., 1998). The Ganges river basin is densely populated
and heavily polluted by fertilizers, pesticides, and industrial and domestic effluents
(Mohan, 1989). In addition to fish, other marine or freshwater animals are endangered
by pesticide contamination. Exposure to great concentrations of persistent, bioaccumulative,
and toxic contaminants such as DDT (1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis[p-chlorophenyl]ethane)
and PCBs has been shown to elicit adverse effects on reproductive and immunological
functions in captive or wild aquatic mammals (Helle et al., 1976; Reijnders, 1986;
Ross et al., 1995; Martineau et al., 1987; Kannan et al., 1993; Colborn and Smolen,
1996). Aquatic mammals inhabiting freshwater systems, such as otters and mink, have
been reported to be sensitive to chemical contamination (Leonards et al., 1995; Leonards
et al., 1997). 2,4-D or 2,4-D containing products have been shown to be harmful to
shellfish (Cheney et al., 1997) and other aquatic species (U.S. EPA, 1989; Sanders,
1989) The weed-killer trifluralin is moderately to highly toxic to aquatic invertebrates,
and highly toxic to estuarine and marine organisms like shrimp and mussels (U.S. EPA,
1996). Since herbicides are designed to kill plants, it makes sense that herbicide
contamination of water could have devastating effects on aquatic plants. In one study,
oxadiazon was found to severely reduce algae growth (Ambrosi et al., 1978). Algae
is a staple organism in the food chain of aquatic ecosystems. Studies looking at the
impacts of the herbicides atrazine and alachlor on algae and diatoms in streams showed
that even at fairly low levels, the chemicals damaged cells, blocked photosynthesis,
and stunted growth in varying ways (U.S. Water News Online, 2000). The herbicide oxadiazon
is also toxic to bees, which are pollinators (Washington State Department of Transportation,
1993). Herbicides may hurt insects or spiders also indirectly when they destroy the
foliage that these animals need for food and shelter. For example spider and carabid
beetle populations declined when 2,4-D applications destroyed their natural habitat
(Asteraki et al., 1992). Non-target birds may also be killed if they ingest poisoned
grains set out as bait for pigeons and rodents (US EPA, 1998). Avitrol, a commonly
used pigeon bait, poses a large potential for ingestion by non target grain feeding
birds. It can be lethal to small seed-eating birds (Extoxnet, 1996). Brodifacoum,
a common rodenticide, is highly toxic to birds. It also poses a secondary poisoning
hazard to birds that may feed on poisoned rodents (US EPA, 1998). Herbicides can also
be toxic to birds. Although trifluralin was considered “practically nontoxic to birds”
in studies of acute toxicity, birds exposed multiple times to the herbicide experienced
diminished reproductive success in the form of cracked eggs (U.S. EPA, 1996). Exposure
of eggs to 2,4-D reduced successful hatching of chicken eggs (Duffard et al., 1981)
and caused feminisation or sterility in pheasant chicks (Lutz et al., 1972). Herbicides
can also adversely affect birds by destroying their habitat. Glyphosate treatment
in clear cuts caused dramatic decreases in the populations of birds that lived there
(MacKinnon et al., 1993) Effects of some organochlorines (OCs) on fish-eating water
birds and marine mammals have been documented in North America and Europe (Barron
et al., 1995; Cooke, 1979; Kubiak et al., 1989). Despite the continuing usage, little
is known about the impacts of OCs in bird populations in developing countries. Among
the countries that continue to use OCs, India has been one of the major producers
and consumers in recent years. As a consequence, wild birds in India are exposed to
great amounts of OC pesticides (Tanabe et al., 1998). Use of OCs in tropical countries
may not only result in exposure of resident birds but also of migratory birds when
they visit tropical regions in winter. The Indian sub-continent is a host to a multitude
of birds from western Asia, Europe and Arctic Russia in winter(Woodcock, 1980). Hundreds
of species of waterfowl, including wading birds such as plovers, terns and sandpipers,
migrate each winter to India covering long distances (Grewal, 1990). While concentrations
of OC pesticides in wholebody homogenates of birds have been reported elsewhere (Tanabe
et al., 1998), concentrations of OCs in prey items and in eggs of Indian birds have
not been reported.
A few studies related to the decline in the populations of bats in various parts of
the world to OC exposure were also being conducted (Altenbach et al., 1979; Clark,
1976; Clark, 1983; Clark, 1981; Geluso et al., 1976; Jefferies, 1976; Thies and Mc
Bee, 1994). The world population of bats was estimated to be 8.7 million during 1936
and it declined to approximately 200,000 in 1973 (Geluso et al., 1976) It has recovered
slightly to an estimated number of 700,000 in 1991 (Geluso et al., 1976; Thies and
Mc Bee, 1994). High tissue concentrations of p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene (p,p'–DDE)
have been found in bats in Carlsbad Caverns in Mexico and in New Mexico in the USA
(Geluso et al., 1976; Thies and Mc Bee, 1994). Occurrence of stillbirths in little
brown bats exposed to high concentrations of PCBs, p,p'–DDE, and/or oxychlordane was
documented (Clark, 1976; Jefferies, 1976). These observations indicate that bats can
accumulate high concentrations of OCs and may be affected by their potential toxic
effects. The flying fox or the new world fruit bat, short-nosed fruit bat and Indian
pipistrelle bat are resident species and are very common in South India. Their habitat
is mainly agricultural areas, rock caves, and abandoned houses in domesticated areas.
Insects constitute an important diet for many bats, allowing the passage of OCs in
their body (Mc Bee et al., 1992). Several studies found OC pesticides and PCBs in
livers and eggs of birds in developed countries (Becker, 1989; Bernardz et al., 1990;
Cade et al., 1989; Castillo et al., 1994; Mora, 1996; Mora, 1997). Similarly, several
studies reported OCs in a variety of biota including humans and wildlife from India
(Senthilkumar et al., 2000). However, no study has used whole body homogenates of
birds, which is important to evaluate biomagnification features and body burdens of
OCs (Mc Bee et al., 1992). Earlier studies used specific body tissues to estimate
biomagnification of OCs. However theoretically, estimation of biomagnification factors
requires whole body concentrations rather than specific tissue concentrations.
Conclusion
The data on environmental-cum-health risk assessment studies may be regarded as an
aid towards a better understanding of the problem. Data on the occurrence of pesticide-related
illnesses among defined populations in developing countries are scanty. Generation
of base-line descriptive epidemiological data based on area profiles, development
of intervention strategies designed to lower the incidence of acute poisoning and
periodic surveillance studies on high risk groups are needed. Our efforts should include
investigations of outbreaks and accidental exposure to pesticides, correlation studies,
cohort analyses, prospective studies and randomised trials of intervention procedures.
Valuable information can be collected by monitoring the end product of human exposure
in the form of residue levels in body fluids and tissues of the general population.
The importance of education and training of workers as a major vehicle to ensure a
safe use of pesticides is being increasingly recognised.
Because of the extensive benefits which man accrues from pesticides, these chemicals
provide the best opportunity to those who juggle with the risk-benefit equations.
The economic impact of pesticides in non-target species (including humans) has been
estimated at approximately $8 billion annually in developing countries. What is required
is to weigh all the risks against the benefits to ensure a maximum margin of safety.
The total cost-benefit picture from pesticide use differs appreciably between developed
and developing countries. For developing countries it is imperative to use pesticides,
as no one would prefer famine and communicable diseases like malaria. It may thus
be expedient to accept a reasonable degree of risk. Our approach to the use of pesticides
should be pragmatic. In other words, all activities concerning pesticides should be
based on scientific judgement and not on commercial considerations. There are some
inherent difficulties in fully evaluating the risks to human health due to pesticides.
For example there is a large number of human variables such as age, sex, race, socio-economic
status, diet, state of health, etc. – all of which affect human exposure to pesticides.
But practically little is known about the effects of these variables. The long-term
effects of low level exposure to one pesticide are greatly influenced by concomitant
exposure to other pesticides as well as to pollutants present in air, water, food
and drugs.
Pesticides are often considered a quick, easy, and inexpensive solution for controlling
weeds and insect pests in urban landscapes. However, pesticide use comes at a significant
cost. Pesticides have contaminated almost every part of our environment. Pesticide
residues are found in soil and air, and in surface and ground water across the countries,
and urban pesticide uses contribute to the problem. Pesticide contamination poses
significant risks to the environment and non-target organisms ranging from beneficial
soil microorganisms, to insects, plants, fish, and birds. Contrary to common misconceptions,
even herbicides can cause harm to the environment. In fact, weed killers can be especially
problematic because they are used in relatively large volumes. The best way to reduce
pesticide contamination (and the harm it causes) in our environment is for all of
us to do our part to use safer, non-chemical pest control (including weed control)
methods.
The exercise of analysing the range and nature of benefits arising from pesticide
use has been a mixture of delving, dreaming and distillation. There have been blind
alleys, but also positive surprises. The general picture is as we suspected: there
is publicity, ideological kudos and scientific opportunity associated with ‘knocking’
pesticides, while praising them brings accusations of vested interests. This is reflected
in the imbalance in the number of published scientific papers, reports, newspaper
articles and websites against and for pesticides. The colour coding for types of benefit,
economic, social or environmental, reveals the fact that at community level, most
of the benefits are social, with some compelling economic benefits. At national level,
the benefits are principally economic, with some social benefits and one or two issues
of environmental benefits. It is only at global level that the environmental benefits
really come into play.
There is a need to convey the message that prevention of adverse health effects and
promotion of health are profitable investments for employers and employees as a support
to a sustainable development of economics. To sum up, based on our limited knowledge
of direct and/or inferential information, the domain of pesticides illustrates a certain
ambiguity in situations in which people are undergoing life-long exposure. There is
thus every reason to develop health education packages based on knowledge, aptitude
and practices and to disseminate them within the community in order to minimise human
exposure to pesticides.