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      Diversity patterns, Leishmania DNA detection, and bloodmeal identification of Phlebotominae sand flies in villages in northern Colombia

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          Abstract

          Leishmaniases are neglected tropical diseases exhibiting complex transmission cycles due to the number of parasite species circulating, sand fly species acting as vectors and infected mammals, including humans, which are defined in the New World as accidental hosts. However, current transmission scenarios are changing, and the disease is no longer exclusively related to forested areas but urban transmission foci occur, involving some species of domestic animals as suspected reservoirs. The aim of this study was to determine the transmission cycles in urban environments by evaluating sand fly diversity, detection of Leishmania DNA, and bloodmeal sources through intra and peridomestic collections. The study was carried out in Colombia, in 13 municipalities of Cordoba department, implementing a methodology that could be further used for the evaluation of vector-borne diseases in villages or towns. Our sampling design included 24 houses randomly selected in each of 15 villages distributed in 13 municipalities, which were sampled in two seasons in 2015 and 2016. Sand flies were collected using CDC light traps placed in intra and peridomestic habitats. In addition to the morphological identification, molecular identification through DNA barcodes was also performed. A total of 19,743 sand flies were collected and 13,848 of them (10,268 females and 3,580 males) were used in molecular procedures. Circulation of two known parasite species– Leishmania infantum and Leishmania panamensis was confirmed. Blood source analyses showed that sand flies fed on humans, particularly in the case of the known L. infantum vector, P. evansi; further analyses are advised to evaluate the reservoirs involved in parasite transmission. Our sampling design allowed us to evaluate potential transmission cycles on a department scale, by defining suspected vector species, parasite species present in different municipalities and feeding habits.

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          A Historical Overview of the Classification, Evolution, and Dispersion of Leishmania Parasites and Sandflies

          Background The aim of this study is to describe the major evolutionary historical events among Leishmania, sandflies, and the associated animal reservoirs in detail, in accordance with the geographical evolution of the Earth, which has not been previously discussed on a large scale. Methodology and Principal Findings Leishmania and sandfly classification has always been a controversial matter, and the increasing number of species currently described further complicates this issue. Despite several hypotheses on the origin, evolution, and distribution of Leishmania and sandflies in the Old and New World, no consistent agreement exists regarding dissemination of the actors that play roles in leishmaniasis. For this purpose, we present here three centuries of research on sandflies and Leishmania descriptions, as well as a complete description of Leishmania and sandfly fossils and the emergence date of each Leishmania and sandfly group during different geographical periods, from 550 million years ago until now. We discuss critically the different approaches that were used for Leishmana and sandfly classification and their synonymies, proposing an updated classification for each species of Leishmania and sandfly. We update information on the current distribution and dispersion of different species of Leishmania (53), sandflies (more than 800 at genus or subgenus level), and animal reservoirs in each of the following geographical ecozones: Palearctic, Nearctic, Neotropic, Afrotropical, Oriental, Malagasy, and Australian. We propose an updated list of the potential and proven sandfly vectors for each Leishmania species in the Old and New World. Finally, we address a classical question about digenetic Leishmania evolution: which was the first host, a vertebrate or an invertebrate? Conclusions and Significance We propose an updated view of events that have played important roles in the geographical dispersion of sandflies, in relation to both the Leishmania species they transmit and the animal reservoirs of the parasites.
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            Heat treatment prior to testing allows detection of antigen of Dirofilaria immitis in feline serum

            Background Diagnosis of Dirofilaria immitis infection in cats is complicated by the difficulty associated with reliable detection of antigen in feline blood and serum samples. Methods To determine if antigen-antibody complex formation may interfere with detection of antigen in feline samples, we evaluated the performance of four different commercially available heartworm tests using serum samples from six cats experimentally infected with D. immitis and confirmed to harbor a low number of adult worms (mean = 2.0). Sera collected 168 (n = 6), 196 (n = 6), and 224 (n = 6) days post infection were tested both directly and following heat treatment. Results Antigen was detected in serum samples from 0 or 1 of 6 infected cats using the assays according to manufacturer’s directions, but after heat treatment of serum samples, as many as 5 of 6 cats had detectable antigen 6–8 months post infection. Antibodies to D. immitis were detected in all six infected cats by commercial in-clinic assay and at a reference laboratory. Conclusions These results indicate that heat treatment of samples prior to testing can improve the sensitivity of antigen assays in feline patients, supporting more accurate diagnosis of this infection in cats. Surveys conducted by antigen testing without prior heat treatment of samples likely underestimate the true prevalence of infection in cats.
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              Urban parasitology: visceral leishmaniasis in Brazil.

              Since the early 1980s, visceral leishmaniasis (VL) which is, in general, a rural zoonotic disease, has spread to the urban centers of the north, and now the south and west of Brazil. The principal drivers differ between cities, though human migration, large urban canid populations (animal reservoir), and a decidedly peripatetic and adaptable sand fly vector are the primary forces. The exact number of urban cases remains unclear as a result of challenges with surveillance. However, the number of urban cases registered continues to increase annually. Most control initiatives (e.g. culling infected dogs and household spraying to kill the sand fly) could be effective, but have proven hard to maintain at large scales due to logistical, financial and other reasons. In this article, the urbanization of VL in Brazil is reviewed, touching on these and other topics related to controlling VL within and outside Brazil. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: Project administrationRole: ValidationRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: Validation
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                10 January 2018
                2018
                : 13
                : 1
                : e0190686
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Centro de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Tropical, CIMPAT, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
                [2 ] Grupo de Biologia Matematica, BIOMAC, Departamento de Ingenieria Biomedica. Facultad de Ingenieria, Universidad de Los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
                [3 ] Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud. Universidad del Sinú, Montería, Córdoba, Colombia
                [4 ] Grupo de Enfermedades Tropicales y Resistencia Bacteriana, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud. Universidad del Sinú, Montería, Córdoba, Colombia
                Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, BRAZIL
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                [¤a]

                Current address: Department of Biology, City College of New York, New York, NY, United States of America

                [¤b]

                Current address: Department of Biology, Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY, United States of America

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8089-4056
                Article
                PONE-D-17-21668
                10.1371/journal.pone.0190686
                5761875
                29320544
                48271dbf-dfe0-4ad1-a013-f2b514192da1
                © 2018 González et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 6 June 2017
                : 19 December 2017
                Page count
                Figures: 3, Tables: 4, Pages: 18
                Funding
                Funded by: GOBERNACIÓN DE CÓRDOBA, SISTEMA GENERAL DE REGALÍAS (SGR) Colombia
                Award ID: 754/2013
                Funded by GOBERNACIÓN DE CÓRDOBA, SISTEMA GENERAL DE REGALÍAS (SGR) Colombia. Grant number 754/2013. https://www.sgr.gov.co/.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Infectious Diseases
                Disease Vectors
                Insect Vectors
                Sand Flies
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                Sand Flies
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