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      Flow-induced Shear Stress Confers Resistance to Carboplatin in an Adherent Three-Dimensional Model for Ovarian Cancer: A Role for EGFR-Targeted Photoimmunotherapy Informed by Physical Stress

      Author(s): 1 , 1 , 1 , 2 , 1 , 3 , 1 , 4 , 4 , 1 , 1 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 1 , 2 , 7 , 1 , 6 , 9 , 1 , 3 , 10 , *

      Publication date (Electronic):

      Journal: Journal of Clinical Medicine

      Publisher: MDPI

      Keywords: ovarian cancer, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (MEK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), chemoresistance, fluid shear stress, ascites, perfusion model, photoimmunotherapy (PIT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), carboplatin

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          Abstract

          A key reason for the persistently grim statistics associated with metastatic ovarian cancer is resistance to conventional agents, including platinum-based chemotherapies. A major source of treatment failure is the high degree of genetic and molecular heterogeneity, which results from significant underlying genomic instability, as well as stromal and physical cues in the microenvironment. Ovarian cancer commonly disseminates via transcoelomic routes to distant sites, which is associated with the frequent production of malignant ascites, as well as the poorest prognosis. In addition to providing a cell and protein-rich environment for cancer growth and progression, ascitic fluid also confers physical stress on tumors. An understudied area in ovarian cancer research is the impact of fluid shear stress on treatment failure. Here, we investigate the effect of fluid shear stress on response to platinum-based chemotherapy and the modulation of molecular pathways associated with aggressive disease in a perfusion model for adherent 3D ovarian cancer nodules. Resistance to carboplatin is observed under flow with a concomitant increase in the expression and activation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) as well as downstream signaling members mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (MEK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). The uptake of platinum by the 3D ovarian cancer nodules was significantly higher in flow cultures compared to static cultures. A downregulation of phospho-focal adhesion kinase (p-FAK), vinculin, and phospho-paxillin was observed following carboplatin treatment in both flow and static cultures. Interestingly, low-dose anti-EGFR photoimmunotherapy (PIT), a targeted photochemical modality, was found to be equally effective in ovarian tumors grown under flow and static conditions. These findings highlight the need to further develop PIT-based combinations that target the EGFR, and sensitize ovarian cancers to chemotherapy in the context of flow-induced shear stress.

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          Most cited references 149

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          Cancer statistics, 2019

           Rebecca Siegel,  Kimberly D Miller,  Ahmedin Jemal (2019)
          Each year, the American Cancer Society estimates the numbers of new cancer cases and deaths that will occur in the United States and compiles the most recent data on cancer incidence, mortality, and survival. Incidence data, available through 2015, were collected by the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program; the National Program of Cancer Registries; and the North American Association of Central Cancer Registries. Mortality data, available through 2016, were collected by the National Center for Health Statistics. In 2019, 1,762,450 new cancer cases and 606,880 cancer deaths are projected to occur in the United States. Over the past decade of data, the cancer incidence rate (2006-2015) was stable in women and declined by approximately 2% per year in men, whereas the cancer death rate (2007-2016) declined annually by 1.4% and 1.8%, respectively. The overall cancer death rate dropped continuously from 1991 to 2016 by a total of 27%, translating into approximately 2,629,200 fewer cancer deaths than would have been expected if death rates had remained at their peak. Although the racial gap in cancer mortality is slowly narrowing, socioeconomic inequalities are widening, with the most notable gaps for the most preventable cancers. For example, compared with the most affluent counties, mortality rates in the poorest counties were 2-fold higher for cervical cancer and 40% higher for male lung and liver cancers during 2012-2016. Some states are home to both the wealthiest and the poorest counties, suggesting the opportunity for more equitable dissemination of effective cancer prevention, early detection, and treatment strategies. A broader application of existing cancer control knowledge with an emphasis on disadvantaged groups would undoubtedly accelerate progress against cancer.
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            Photodynamic therapy of cancer: an update.

             Patrizia Agostinis,  Kristian Berg,  Keith A. Cengel … (2015)
            Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a clinically approved, minimally invasive therapeutic procedure that can exert a selective cytotoxic activity toward malignant cells. The procedure involves administration of a photosensitizing agent followed by irradiation at a wavelength corresponding to an absorbance band of the sensitizer. In the presence of oxygen, a series of events lead to direct tumor cell death, damage to the microvasculature, and induction of a local inflammatory reaction. Clinical studies revealed that PDT can be curative, particularly in early stage tumors. It can prolong survival in patients with inoperable cancers and significantly improve quality of life. Minimal normal tissue toxicity, negligible systemic effects, greatly reduced long-term morbidity, lack of intrinsic or acquired resistance mechanisms, and excellent cosmetic as well as organ function-sparing effects of this treatment make it a valuable therapeutic option for combination treatments. With a number of recent technological improvements, PDT has the potential to become integrated into the mainstream of cancer treatment.
            Article 0 comments Cited 506 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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              Roles of the Raf/MEK/ERK pathway in cell growth, malignant transformation and drug resistance.

               Jorg Basecke,  David M Terrian,  Michele Milella … (2007)
              Growth factors and mitogens use the Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK signaling cascade to transmit signals from their receptors to regulate gene expression and prevent apoptosis. Some components of these pathways are mutated or aberrantly expressed in human cancer (e.g., Ras, B-Raf). Mutations also occur at genes encoding upstream receptors (e.g., EGFR and Flt-3) and chimeric chromosomal translocations (e.g., BCR-ABL) which transmit their signals through these cascades. Even in the absence of obvious genetic mutations, this pathway has been reported to be activated in over 50% of acute myelogenous leukemia and acute lymphocytic leukemia and is also frequently activated in other cancer types (e.g., breast and prostate cancers). Importantly, this increased expression is associated with a poor prognosis. The Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK and Ras/PI3K/PTEN/Akt pathways interact with each other to regulate growth and in some cases tumorigenesis. For example, in some cells, PTEN mutation may contribute to suppression of the Raf/MEK/ERK cascade due to the ability of activated Akt to phosphorylate and inactivate different Rafs. Although both of these pathways are commonly thought to have anti-apoptotic and drug resistance effects on cells, they display different cell lineage specific effects. For example, Raf/MEK/ERK is usually associated with proliferation and drug resistance of hematopoietic cells, while activation of the Raf/MEK/ERK cascade is suppressed in some prostate cancer cell lines which have mutations at PTEN and express high levels of activated Akt. Furthermore the Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK and Ras/PI3K/PTEN/Akt pathways also interact with the p53 pathway. Some of these interactions can result in controlling the activity and subcellular localization of Bim, Bak, Bax, Puma and Noxa. Raf/MEK/ERK may promote cell cycle arrest in prostate cells and this may be regulated by p53 as restoration of wild-type p53 in p53 deficient prostate cancer cells results in their enhanced sensitivity to chemotherapeutic drugs and increased expression of Raf/MEK/ERK pathway. Thus in advanced prostate cancer, it may be advantageous to induce Raf/MEK/ERK expression to promote cell cycle arrest, while in hematopoietic cancers it may be beneficial to inhibit Raf/MEK/ERK induced proliferation and drug resistance. Thus the Raf/MEK/ERK pathway has different effects on growth, prevention of apoptosis, cell cycle arrest and induction of drug resistance in cells of various lineages which may be due to the presence of functional p53 and PTEN and the expression of lineage specific factors.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): J Clin Med
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): J Clin Med
                Journal ID (publisher-id): jcm
                Title: Journal of Clinical Medicine
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2077-0383
                Publication date (Electronic): 28 March 2020
                Publication date Collection: April 2020
                Volume: 9
                Issue: 4
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; snath.vet2000@ 123456gmail.com (S.N.); m.pigula94@ 123456gmail.com (M.P.); APKHAN@ 123456mgh.harvard.edu (A.P.K.); mkruhi@ 123456email.unc.edu (M.K.R.); FMahmoodpoorDehkordy@ 123456mgh.harvard.edu (F.M.D.); kmoore31@ 123456mgh.harvard.edu (K.M.); yujirotsujita@ 123456gmail.com (Y.T.); wfranco@ 123456mgh.harvard.edu (W.F.); thasan@ 123456mgh.harvard.edu (T.H.)
                [2 ]Department of Physics, College of Science and Mathematics, University of Massachusetts at Boston, Boston, MA 02125, USA; william.hanna001@ 123456gmail.com (W.H.); jonathan.celli@ 123456umb.edu (J.P.C.)
                [3 ]Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27599, USA
                [4 ]School for Engineering of Matter, Transport and Energy, Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA; kpsubram@ 123456asu.edu (K.P.); Kaushal.Rege@ 123456asu.edu (K.R.)
                [5 ]Department of Urology, National Defense Medical College, Tokorozawa, Saitama 359-8513, Japan
                [6 ]Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA; cconrad8@ 123456terpmail.umd.edu (C.C.); hchuang@ 123456umd.edu (H.-C.H.)
                [7 ]Bio-Acoustic MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Department of Radiology School of Medicine Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA; finci@ 123456stanford.edu (F.I.); utkan@ 123456stanford.edu (U.D.)
                [8 ]Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Vincent Obstetrics and Gynecology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; mdelcarmen@ 123456mgh.harvard.edu
                [9 ]Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Cancer Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
                [10 ]Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: imran.rizvi@ 123456unc.edu
                [†]

                Equal contribution.

                Article
                Publisher ID: jcm-09-00924
                DOI: 10.3390/jcm9040924
                PMC ID: 7230263
                PubMed ID: 32231055
                Copyright statement: © 2020 by the authors.

                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                Categories
                Subject: Article

                Data availability:

                Keywords: ovarian cancer, carboplatin, photodynamic therapy (pdt), photoimmunotherapy (pit), perfusion model, ascites, fluid shear stress, chemoresistance, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (erk), mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (mek), epidermal growth factor receptor (egfr)

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