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      Exposure to Free and Conjugated Forms of Bisphenol A and Triclosan among Pregnant Women in the MIREC Cohort

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          Abstract

          Background:

          Bisphenol A (BPA) and triclosan (TCS) are two nonpersistent chemicals that have been frequently measured in spot urine samples from the general population but less so in pregnant women; however, data are limited on the free (bioactive) and conjugated forms of these phenols.

          Objectives:

          The Maternal-Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals (MIREC) Study addressed these data gaps by utilizing stored maternal urine samples from a large multicenter cohort study of Canadian pregnant women.

          Methods:

          Concentrations of free and conjugated forms of BPA and TCS were measured in about 1,890 first-trimester urine samples by ultra performance liquid chromatograpy–tandem mass spectrometry using isotope dilution.

          Results:

          The glucuronides of BPA and TCS were the predominant forms of these chemicals measured (detected in 95% and 99% of samples, respectively), whereas the free forms were detected in 43% and 80% of samples, respectively. The geometric mean urinary concentrations for glucuronides of BPA and TCS were 0.80 μg/L (95% CI: 0.75, 0.85) and 12.30 μg/L (95% CI: 11.08, 13.65), respectively. Significant predictors of BPA included maternal age < 25 vs. ≥ 35 years, current smoking, low vs. high household income, and low vs. high education. For TCS, urinary concentrations were significantly higher in women ≥ 25 years of age, never vs. current smokers, and women with high household income and high education.

          Conclusions:

          The results from this study represent the largest national-level data on urinary concentrations of free and conjugated forms of BPA and TCS in pregnant women and suggest that maternal characteristics predicting elevated urinary concentrations of these phenols largely act in opposite directions.

          Citation:

          Arbuckle TE, Marro L, Davis K, Fisher M, Ayotte P, Bélanger P, Dumas P, LeBlanc A, Bérubé R, Gaudreau É, Provencher G, Faustman EM, Vigoren E, Ettinger AS, Dellarco M, MacPherson S, Fraser WD. 2015. Exposure to free and conjugated forms of bisphenol A and triclosan among pregnant women in the MIREC cohort. Environ Health Perspect 123:277–284;  http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408187

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          Most cited references56

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          Exposure of the U.S. Population to Bisphenol A and 4-tertiary-Octylphenol: 2003–2004

          Background Bisphenol A (BPA) and 4-tertiary-octylphenol (tOP) are industrial chemicals used in the manufacture of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins (BPA) and nonionic surfactants (tOP). These products are in widespread use in the United States. Objectives We aimed to assess exposure to BPA and tOP in the U.S. general population. Methods We measured the total (free plus conjugated) urinary concentrations of BPA and tOP in 2,517 participants ≥ 6 years of age in the 2003–2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey using automated solid-phase extraction coupled to isotope dilution–high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Results BPA and tOP were detected in 92.6% and 57.4% of the persons, respectively. Least square geometric mean (LSGM) concentrations of BPA were significantly lower in Mexican Americans than in non-Hispanic blacks (p = 0.006) and non-Hispanic whites (p = 0.007); LSGM concentrations for non-Hispanic blacks and non-Hispanic whites were not statistically different (p = 0.21). Females had statistically higher BPA LSGM concentrations than males (p = 0.043). Children had higher concentrations than adolescents (p $45,000/year). Conclusions Urine concentrations of total BPA differed by race/ethnicity, age, sex, and household income. These first U.S. population representative concentration data for urinary BPA and tOP should help guide public health research priorities, including studies of exposure pathways, potential health effects, and risk assessment.
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            Prenatal Phenol and Phthalate Exposures and Birth Outcomes

            Background Many phthalates and phenols are hormonally active and are suspected to alter the course of development. Objective We investigated prenatal exposures to phthalate and phenol metabolites and their associations with body size measures of the infants at birth. Methods We measured 5 phenol and 10 phthalate urinary metabolites in a multiethnic cohort of 404 women in New York City during their third trimester of pregnancy and recorded size of infants at birth. Results Median urinary concentrations were > 10 μg/L for 2 of 5 phenols and 6 of 10 phthalate monoester metabolites. Concentrations of low-molecular-weight phthalate monoesters (low-MWP) were approximately 5-fold greater than those of high-molecular-weight metabolites. Low-MWP metabolites had a positive association with gestational age [0.97 day gestational age per ln-biomarker; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.07–1.9 days, multivariate adjusted] and with head circumference. Higher prenatal exposures to 2,5-dichlorophenol (2,5-DCP) predicted lower birth weight in boys (−210 g average birth weight difference between the third tertile and first tertile of 2,5-DCP; 95% CI, 71–348 g). Higher maternal benzophenone-3 (BP3) concentrations were associated with a similar decrease in birth weight among girls but with greater birth weight in boys. Conclusions We observed a range of phthalate and phenol exposures during pregnancy in our population, but few were associated with birth size. The association of 2,5-DCP and BP3 with reduced or increased birth weight could be important in very early or small-size births. In addition, positive associations of urinary metabolites with some outcomes may be attributable partly to unresolved confounding with maternal anthropometric factors.
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              Triclosan: environmental exposure, toxicity and mechanisms of action.

              Triclosan [5-chloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenol; TCS] is a broad spectrum antibacterial agent used in personal care, veterinary, industrial and household products. TCS is commonly detected in aquatic ecosystems, as it is only partially removed during the wastewater treatment process. Sorption, biodegradation and photolytic degradation mitigate the availability of TCS to aquatic biota; however the by-products such as methyltriclosan and other chlorinated phenols may be more resistant to degradation and have higher toxicity than the parent compound. The continuous exposure of aquatic organisms to TCS, coupled with its bioaccumulation potential, have led to detectable levels of the antimicrobial in a number of aquatic species. TCS has been also detected in breast milk, urine and plasma, with levels of TCS in the blood correlating with consumer use patterns of the antimicrobial. Mammalian systemic toxicity studies indicate that TCS is neither acutely toxic, mutagenic, carcinogenic, nor a developmental toxicant. Recently, however, concern has been raised over TCS's potential for endocrine disruption, as the antimicrobial has been shown to disrupt thyroid hormone homeostasis and possibly the reproductive axis. Moreover, there is strong evidence that aquatic species such as algae, invertebrates and certain types of fish are much more sensitive to TCS than mammals. TCS is highly toxic to algae and exerts reproductive and developmental effects in some fish. The potential for endocrine disruption and antibiotic cross-resistance highlights the importance of the judicious use of TCS, whereby the use of TCS should be limited to applications where it has been shown to be effective. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Environ Health Perspect
                Environ. Health Perspect
                EHP
                Environmental Health Perspectives
                NLM-Export
                0091-6765
                1552-9924
                21 November 2014
                April 2015
                : 123
                : 4
                : 277-284
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Population Studies Division, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
                [2 ]Laboratoire de toxicologie, Institut national de santé publique du Québec, Québec, Quebec, Canada
                [3 ]Population Health and Optimal Health Practices Research Unit, CHU (Centre hospitalier universitaire) de Québec Research Centre, Québec, Quebec, Canada
                [4 ]Institute for Risk Analysis and Risk Communication, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
                [5 ]Center for Perinatal, Pediatric and Environmental Epidemiology, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
                [6 ]The National Children’s Study, Eunice Kennedy Shriver, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
                [7 ]CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Mother and Child University Hospital Center, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
                Author notes
                Address correspondence to T.E. Arbuckle, Population Studies Division, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, A.L. 0801A, 50 Colombine Dr., Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0K9, Canada. Telephone: (613) 941-1287. E-mail: Tye.Arbuckle@ 123456hc-sc.gc.ca
                Article
                ehp.1408187
                10.1289/ehp.1408187
                4384201
                25494523
                498bbe6c-68af-4e94-a633-78e210f09db0

                Publication of EHP lies in the public domain and is therefore without copyright. All text from EHP may be reprinted freely. Use of materials published in EHP should be acknowledged (for example, “Reproduced with permission from Environmental Health Perspectives”); pertinent reference information should be provided for the article from which the material was reproduced. Articles from EHP, especially the News section, may contain photographs or illustrations copyrighted by other commercial organizations or individuals that may not be used without obtaining prior approval from the holder of the copyright.

                History
                : 28 January 2014
                : 19 November 2014
                : 21 November 2014
                : 01 April 2015
                Categories
                Research

                Public health
                Public health

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