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      The Human Respiratory System and its Microbiome at a Glimpse

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          Abstract

          Simple Summary

          New data in the current scientific literature show that the composition of the respiratory system microbiome differs in health and disease conditions and that the microbial community as a collective entity can contribute to the pathophysiological processes associated with chronic airway disease. The respiratory microbiome is less studied than that of other areas, but it is believed to contribute to the host’s local immune education and to the development of respiratory diseases, including allergies, asthma and others. In this review, was highlighted the current clinical microbiology knowledge about the microbiota and the various lung diseases relationships, previously only indirectly related to microbial pathogenesis, and the microbiota–pathogenesis relationship of lung infection, among the main causes of diseases, in order to prevent and help in a targeted treatment of various lung diseases.

          Abstract

          The recent COVID-19 pandemic promoted efforts to better understand the organization of the respiratory microbiome and its evolution from birth to adulthood and how it interacts with external pathogens and the host immune system. This review aims to deepen understanding of the essential physiological functions of the resident microbiome of the respiratory system on human health and diseases. First, the general characteristics of the normal microbiota in the different anatomical sites of the airways have been reported in relation to some factors such as the effect of age, diet and others on its composition and stability. Second, we analyze in detail the functions and composition and the correct functionality of the microbiome in the light of current knowledge. Several studies suggest the importance of preserving the micro-ecosystem of commensal, symbiotic and pathogenic microbes of the respiratory system, and, more recently, its relationship with the intestinal microbiome, and how it also leads to the maintenance of human health, has become better understood.

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          Most cited references88

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          Structure, Function and Diversity of the Healthy Human Microbiome

          Studies of the human microbiome have revealed that even healthy individuals differ remarkably in the microbes that occupy habitats such as the gut, skin, and vagina. Much of this diversity remains unexplained, although diet, environment, host genetics, and early microbial exposure have all been implicated. Accordingly, to characterize the ecology of human-associated microbial communities, the Human Microbiome Project has analyzed the largest cohort and set of distinct, clinically relevant body habitats to date. We found the diversity and abundance of each habitat’s signature microbes to vary widely even among healthy subjects, with strong niche specialization both within and among individuals. The project encountered an estimated 81–99% of the genera, enzyme families, and community configurations occupied by the healthy Western microbiome. Metagenomic carriage of metabolic pathways was stable among individuals despite variation in community structure, and ethnic/racial background proved to be one of the strongest associations of both pathways and microbes with clinical metadata. These results thus delineate the range of structural and functional configurations normal in the microbial communities of a healthy population, enabling future characterization of the epidemiology, ecology, and translational applications of the human microbiome.
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            The human microbiome project.

            A strategy to understand the microbial components of the human genetic and metabolic landscape and how they contribute to normal physiology and predisposition to disease.
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              Induction of colonic regulatory T cells by indigenous Clostridium species.

              CD4(+) T regulatory cells (T(regs)), which express the Foxp3 transcription factor, play a critical role in the maintenance of immune homeostasis. Here, we show that in mice, T(regs) were most abundant in the colonic mucosa. The spore-forming component of indigenous intestinal microbiota, particularly clusters IV and XIVa of the genus Clostridium, promoted T(reg) cell accumulation. Colonization of mice by a defined mix of Clostridium strains provided an environment rich in transforming growth factor-β and affected Foxp3(+) T(reg) number and function in the colon. Oral inoculation of Clostridium during the early life of conventionally reared mice resulted in resistance to colitis and systemic immunoglobulin E responses in adult mice, suggesting a new therapeutic approach to autoimmunity and allergy.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Biology (Basel)
                Biology (Basel)
                biology
                Biology
                MDPI
                2079-7737
                01 October 2020
                October 2020
                : 9
                : 10
                : 318
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Ionian Department, Microbiology and Virology Laboratory, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy; luigi.santacroce@ 123456uniba.it
                [2 ]Department of Clinical Disciplines, University of Elbasan, Rruga Ismail Zyma, 3001 Elbasan, Albania; skender.topi@ 123456uniel.edu.al
                [3 ]Poison Center, OO. RR. University Hospital of Foggia, Viale Luigi Pinto 1, 71122 Foggia, Italy
                [4 ]Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Via Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy
                [5 ]Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Vico L. De Crecchio 7, 80138 Naples, Italy
                [6 ]Department of Interdisciplinary Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy; francesco.inchingolo@ 123456uniba.it
                [7 ]ENT Service, Brindisi Local Health Agency, Via Dalmazia 3, 72100 Brindisi, Italy; p.luperto@ 123456libero.it
                [8 ]Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neurosciences and Sense Organs, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy; emanuele.denitto@ 123456uniba.it
                Author notes
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5671-8124
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8758-1415
                Article
                biology-09-00318
                10.3390/biology9100318
                7599718
                33019595
                4c690cbb-950a-43cb-a34e-77c56fd91938
                © 2020 by the authors.

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 13 August 2020
                : 25 September 2020
                Categories
                Review

                human microbiome,respiratory microbiome,clinical microbiology,immune modulation,dysbiosis,respiratory diseases,translational research,asthma,sars-cov-2

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