To the Editor: Domestic dogs live in close association with humans and livestock,
participating in the transmission of diseases of zoonotic, veterinary, and conservation
interest (
1
,
2
). Most households in Uganda have traditionally kept dogs for hunting and for help
with herding, security, and guarding livestock. Most dogs receive no prophylactic
measures (e.g., vaccinations) and roam freely; this situation exposes them to pathogens
from eating garbage, rodents, and stillborn animals and other carcasses and through
inhalation during scent communication. Thus, dogs are a reservoir for certain pathogens
and a useful sentinel for others (
3
).
In 2011, serum samples were obtained from 116 mixed-breed dogs during a rabies vaccination
campaign in and near 3 national parks in southwestern Uganda; the dogs were >4 months
of age and were voluntarily brought in by their owners (Figure, Appendix, Table).
Two of the parks, Bwindi Impenetrable (BI) and Mgahinga Gorilla (MG), have some of
the most biologically diverse tropical forests in eastern Africa and are home to mountain
gorillas. The third park, Queen Elizabeth (QE), is home to populations of protected
carnivores and ungulates. The parks lie within a densely populated rural landscape;
in some areas, the population is as high as 500 persons/km2.
Figure
Map of Uganda showing 3 areas where a serosurvery for human and animal pathogens was
conducted among dogs. 1, Queen Elizabeth National Park; 2, Bwindi Impenetrable National
Park; 3, Mgahinga Gorilla National Park.
Table
Methodology and seroprevalence for selected pathogens in rural dogs in 3 national
parks, Uganda, 2011*
Pathogen
Test, cutoff value, and ref or kit
National park
All 3 parks
Queen Elizabeth†
Bwindi Impenetrable‡
Mgahinga Gorilla§
Sample size
Prevalence, % (95% CI)
Sample size
Prevalence, % (95% CI)
Sample size
Prevalence, % (95% CI)
Sample size
Prevalence, % (95% CI)
Rabies virus¶
FAVN, 0.24 IU/mL (
4
)
101
19.8 (12.7–28.6)
23
21.7 (9.0–43.3)
56
19.6 (11.0–32.0)
22
16.7 (5.9–37.2)
CDV
c-ELISA, Ingezim Moquillo IgG#
92
100.0 (95.9–100)
30
100 (88.8–100.0)
39
100 (91.4–100.0)
23
100 (85.4–100.0)
CPV
c-ELISA, Ingezim CPV#
92
65.2 (54.9–74.5)
26
80.8 (61.7–92.1)
43
76.7 (61.7–87.6)
23
26.1 (12.0–47.8)
Leptospira interrogans**
MAT, 1:200 (15)
105
26.7 (19.0–36.1)
27
25.9 (12.4–46.2)
55
29.1 (17.9–42.7)
23
21.7 (9.0–43.3)
Leishmania sp.††
c-ELISA, Ingezim Leishmania#
92
19.6 (12.3–29.2)
26
19.2 (7.9–38.3)
43
25.6 (14.6–40.6)
23
8.7 (1.6–27.8)
Toxoplasma gondii
MAT, 1:25 (
3
)
109
90.8 (83.6–95.1)
30
90.0 (73.7–97.2)
56
98.2 (90.5–99.9)
23
73.9 (52.2–88.0)
Neospora caninum
c-ELISA, 30% (
3
)
109
27.5 (19.6–36.6)
30
26.7 (13.1–45.0)
56
32.1 (21.2–45.5)
23
30.4 (14.5–52.2)
*Ref, reference; FAVN, fluorescent antibody virus neutralization; CPV, canine parvovirus;
c-ELISA, competitive ELISA; CDV, canine distemper virus; MAT, modified agglutination
test.
†0°12′ S, 30°0′ E (savannah).
‡1°0′ S, 29°42′ E (tropical forest).
§1°16′ S,
29°40′ E (tropical forest).
¶Four dogs vaccinated against rabies in Queen Elizabeth
are not included in these results.
#Manufactured by Ingenasa, Madrid, Spain.
**Fourteen
serovars were investigated. Of the dogs seropositive, 71.5% were seropositive to 1
serovar and 28.5% to 2 serovars. Reacting serovars were Icterohaemorragiae (42.8%
of positive dogs), Canicola (39.2%), Pyrogenes (21.4%), Tarassovi (10.7%), and Gryppothiposa
and Australis (7.2% each).
††Antibodies probably correspond to contact with Leishmania
donovani.
Of the 116 sampled dogs, 4 had been vaccinated against rabies by the authors in 2010
in QE (not included in rabies results), and 11 (all males) had been castrated by local
animal healers before serum samples were obtained. The samples were used to test for
seroprevalence rates to rabies virus (RABV), canine distemper virus (CDV), canine
parvovirus (CPV), Leptospira interrogans, Leishmania sp., Toxoplasma gondii, and Neospora
caninum (Table). Seroprevalence rates ranged from 20% to 100% (Table). CPV seroprevalence
was higher in BI and QE than in MG (χ2
>12.6, p<0.001); T. gondii seroprevalence was higher in BI than in MG (Fisher p =
0.002); and RABV seroprevalence was higher in castrated than noncastrated dogs (50%
vs. 10%; Fisher p = 0.005).
For humans, the domestic dog is the main source of exposure to RABV. The possibility
that the presence of the rabies titers in the dog serum samples was due to a previous
vaccination can be ruled out because the only previous recent campaign in the area
was conducted by the authors. Antibodies against RABV in apparently healthy dogs have
been reported in Africa (
6
), and rabies seems to be not invariably fatal in dogs. Dogs that have recovered from
a rabies infection are prone to shed RABV in their saliva for long periods (
7
). Antibodies against RABV were more frequently found in castrated dogs. This finding
may be due to an increase in virus-related deaths among noncastrated dogs; such dogs
tend to be more aggressive and to roam, so they may come more frequently into contact
with pathogenic RABV strains.
Results indicate that both CDV and CPV are actively circulating in the studied dog
populations. High CDV seroprevalence rates have been reported among other rural dog
populations in Africa (
8
). Sick, debilitated pups are at high risk for predation by wild carnivores, so spillover
may take place. A dog population exhibiting similar characteristics to the population
we studied was believed to be the origin of the 1994 CDV epidemic among Serengeti
wildlife (
8
). Furthermore, carnivores use feces for scent communication, so the probability of
infection by CPV in wild carnivores in the study area may also be high.
In developing countries, leptospirosis is emerging as a major public health problem
and also causes enormous economic losses because of disease in livestock (
9
). The most commonly detected serovars in this study were those that have rats and
dogs as reservoirs (Table). Visceral leishmaniasis in humans is also a major health
problem in several areas of eastern Africa, where the number of cases has dramatically
increased during the past 20 years. Transmission of Leishmania donovani in eastern
Africa may take place through anthroponotic or zoonotic cycles, although, to our knowledge,
no reservoir host had been identified (
10
).
The mean T. gondii seroprevalence detected during this survey appears to be the highest
reported for dogs worldwide. This protozoon has implications for human and animal
health, and dogs, who probably become infected with T. gondii when eating raw meat,
are a good sentinel for environmental contamination by this parasite. On the other
hand, dogs serve as the definitive host for N. caninum, which is a major cause of
abortions in cattle and causes economic losses wherever it is enzootic.
Some of these diseases may also have implications for the conservation of endangered
mountain gorillas. Diseases such as leptospirosis, toxoplasmosis, and especially,
rabies could be fatal for gorillas, and there are unpublished reports of fights between
hunting dogs and gorillas.
Our work should serve as a first step toward the establishment of preventive strategies
for improvements in the health of humans and domestic animals living in rural Uganda
and for the health of the country’s unique wildlife. Tracing the role of dogs in the
cycle of the studied pathogens is crucial for the design of control programs.