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      La tormentosa relación entre las grasas y el desarrollo de la diabetes mellitus tipo 2: actualizado. Parte 2 Translated title: The stormy relationship between fats and the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus: Updated. Part 2

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          Abstract

          En esta parte de la revisión se describe la relación funcional entre el metabolismo de los lípidos y los hidratos de carbono y su interdependencia, desde el ciclo glucosa-ácido grasos y la hipótesis portal de la insulinorresistencia a los nuevos conocimientos sobre los adipocitos marrones y beiges, con énfasis en el normal funcionamiento de un patrón endocrino cuya disfunción es clave en la fisiopatología de la DMT2 y la obesidad. Se discute la ectopia o el asiento de grasa en el tejido magro por incapacidad del tejido adiposo para seguir acopiando lípidos y la actividad endocrina del adipocito, con la producción de moléculas (adipoquinas) que influyen sobre los mecanismos inductores de insulinorresistencia (leptina, adiponectina, TNF-α, resistina, etc.) y disfunción de la célula beta. Se describen la disminución de la capacidad oxidativa en la cadena respiratoria mitocondrial y el renacer del concepto de lipogénesis de novo, ambas favoreciendo el acopie de lípido intracelular. En tejidos magros existen pequeñas reservas intracelulares de lípidos que mantienen la regulación de funciones esenciales, aunque si aparece una sobrecarga lipídica el fenómeno conduciría a una disfunción (lipotoxicidad) y a la muerte celular (lipoapoptosis). La tormentosa relación entre los lípidos y el islote de Langerhans va más allá del esfuerzo funcional que impone la insulinorresistencia periférica sobre la célula β, por efectos directos de los lípidos o de sus derivados sobre la función del islote pancreático. Sin déficit de insulina no se desarrolla diabetes.

          Translated abstract

          In this part of the review, the functional relationship between lipid and carbohydrate metabolisms and their interdependence is described, from the glucose-fatty acid cycle and the portal hypothesis of insulin resistance to the new knowledge on brown and beige adipocytes, with emphasis on the normal functioning of an endocrine pattern in which its dysfunction is a key factor in the pathophysiology of T2DM and obesity. Ectopic fat deposition in lean tissues due to the inability of the adipose tissue to continuously collect lipids and the endocrine activity of adipocytes is discussed. The production of molecules (adipokines) influencing some of the mechanisms involved in the development of insulin resistance (leptin, adiponectin, TNF-α, resistin, etc.) and beta cell dysfunction is also revisited. The decrease in the oxidative capacity in the mitochondrial respiratory chain and the rebirth of the concept of de novo lipogenesis are described, both effects favouring intracellular lipid accumulation. In lean tissues there are small intracellular lipid reserves that help to maintain the regulation of essential functions; however, when a lipid overload occurs the phenomenon could lead to severe cell dysfunction (lipotoxicity), and death (lipo-apoptosis). The stormy relationship between lipids and the Langerhans' islets goes beyond the functional effort imposed by peripheral insulin-resistance on the β cells, either by the direct effect of lipids or by their derivatives on overall pancreatic islet function. Within a scenario of no insulin deficit, diabetes does not develop.

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          Adipose tissue, adipokines, and inflammation.

          White adipose tissue is no longer considered an inert tissue mainly devoted to energy storage but is emerging as an active participant in regulating physiologic and pathologic processes, including immunity and inflammation. Macrophages are components of adipose tissue and actively participate in its activities. Furthermore, cross-talk between lymphocytes and adipocytes can lead to immune regulation. Adipose tissue produces and releases a variety of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory factors, including the adipokines leptin, adiponectin, resistin, and visfatin, as well as cytokines and chemokines, such as TNF-alpha, IL-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, and others. Proinflammatory molecules produced by adipose tissue have been implicated as active participants in the development of insulin resistance and the increased risk of cardiovascular disease associated with obesity. In contrast, reduced leptin levels might predispose to increased susceptibility to infection caused by reduced T-cell responses in malnourished individuals. Altered adipokine levels have been observed in a variety of inflammatory conditions, although their pathogenic role has not been completely clarified.
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            Transcriptional control of brown fat determination by PRDM16.

            Brown fat cells are specialized to dissipate energy and can counteract obesity; however, the transcriptional basis of their determination is largely unknown. We show here that the zinc-finger protein PRDM16 is highly enriched in brown fat cells compared to white fat cells. When expressed in white fat cell progenitors, PRDM16 activates a robust brown fat phenotype including induction of PGC-1alpha, UCP1, and type 2 deiodinase (Dio2) expression and a remarkable increase in uncoupled respiration. Transgenic expression of PRDM16 at physiological levels in white fat depots stimulates the formation of brown fat cells. Depletion of PRDM16 through shRNA expression in brown fat cells causes a near total loss of the brown characteristics. PRDM16 activates brown fat cell identity at least in part by simultaneously activating PGC-1alpha and PGC-1beta through direct protein binding. These data indicate that PRDM16 can control the determination of brown fat fate.
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              Adaptations of skeletal muscle to exercise: rapid increase in the transcriptional coactivator PGC-1.

              Endurance exercise induces increases in mitochondria and the GLUT4 isoform of the glucose transporter in muscle. Although little is known about the mechanisms underlying these adaptations, new information has accumulated regarding how mitochondrial biogenesis and GLUT4 expression are regulated. This includes the findings that the transcriptional coactivator PGC-1 promotes mitochondrial biogenesis and that NRF-1 and NRF-2 act as transcriptional activators of genes encoding mitochondrial enzymes. We tested the hypothesis that increases in PGC-1, NRF-1, and NRF-2 are involved in the initial adaptive response of muscle to exercise. Five daily bouts of swimming induced increases in mitochondrial enzymes and GLUT4 in skeletal muscle in rats. One exercise bout resulted in approximately twofold increases in full-length muscle PGC-1 mRNA and PGC-1 protein, which were evident 18 h after exercise. A smaller form of PGC-1 increased after exercise. The exercise induced increases in muscle NRF-1 and NRF-2 that were evident 12 to 18 h after one exercise bout. These findings suggest that increases in PGC-1, NRF-1, and NRF-2 represent key regulatory components of the stimulation of mitochondrial biogenesis by exercise and that PGC-1 mediates the coordinated increases in GLUT4 and mitochondria.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Journal
                raem
                Revista argentina de endocrinología y metabolismo
                Rev. argent. endocrinol. metab.
                Sociedad Argentina de Endocrinología y Metabolismo (Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, , Argentina )
                1851-3034
                December 2017
                : 54
                : 4
                : 185-195
                Affiliations
                [02] La Plata Buenos Aires orgnameUNLP-CONICET-FCM orgdiv1CENEXA Argentina
                [01] CABA orgnameUniversidad Favaloro Argentina
                Article
                S1851-30342017000400006
                10.1016/j.raem.2017.06.001
                506535be-7f47-452f-a757-e604c2504054

                This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

                History
                : 01 June 2017
                : 10 April 2017
                Page count
                Figures: 0, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 52, Pages: 11
                Product

                SciELO Argentina


                Lípidos Adipoquinas,Type 2 diabetes mellitus,Adipose tissues,Adipogenesis,Lipids,Adipokines,Diabetes mellitus tipo 2,Tejidos adiposos,Adipogénesis

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