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      Immunogenic cell death in cancer therapy: Present and emerging inducers

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          Abstract

          In the tumour microenvironment (TME), immunogenic cell death (ICD) plays a major role in stimulating the dysfunctional antitumour immune system. Chronic exposure of damage‐associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) attracts receptors and ligands on dendritic cells (DCs) and activates immature DCs to transition to a mature phenotype, which promotes the processing of phagocytic cargo in DCs and accelerates the engulfment of antigenic components by DCs. Consequently, via antigen presentation, DCs stimulate specific T cell responses that kill more cancer cells. The induction of ICD eventually results in long‐lasting protective antitumour immunity. Through the exploration of ICD inducers, recent studies have shown that there are many novel modalities with the ability to induce immunogenic cancer cell death. In this review, we mainly discussed and summarized the emerging methods for inducing immunogenic cancer cell death. Concepts and molecular mechanisms relevant to antitumour effects of ICD are also briefly discussed.

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          Most cited references59

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          Cancer Cell-Selective In Vivo Near Infrared Photoimmunotherapy Targeting Specific Membrane Molecules

          Three major modes of cancer therapies, surgery, radiation and chemotherapy, have been the mainstay of modern oncologic therapy. To minimize side effects, molecular targeted cancer therapies including armed antibody therapy have been developed with limited success. In this study, we developed a new type of molecular targeted cancer therapy, photoimmunotherapy (PIT), employing a target-specific photosensitizer based on a near infrared (NIR) phthalocyanine dye, IR700, conjugated to monoclonal antibodies (MAb) targeting epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFR). Cell death was induced immediately only upon irradiating, MAb-IR700 bound, target cells with NIR light. In vivo tumor shrinkage after irradiation with NIR light was observed only in target EGFR-expressing cells. The MAb-IR700 conjugates were most effective when bound to the cell membrane, producing no phototoxicity when not bound, suggesting a different mechanism for PIT compared with conventional photodynamic therapies. Target selective PIT enables treatment of cancer based on MAb binding on the cell membrane.
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            A novel pathway combining calreticulin exposure and ATP secretion in immunogenic cancer cell death.

            Surface-exposed calreticulin (ecto-CRT) and secreted ATP are crucial damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) for immunogenic apoptosis. Inducers of immunogenic apoptosis rely on an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-based (reactive oxygen species (ROS)-regulated) pathway for ecto-CRT induction, but the ATP secretion pathway is unknown. We found that after photodynamic therapy (PDT), which generates ROS-mediated ER stress, dying cancer cells undergo immunogenic apoptosis characterized by phenotypic maturation (CD80(high), CD83(high), CD86(high), MHC-II(high)) and functional stimulation (NO(high), IL-10(absent), IL-1β(high)) of dendritic cells as well as induction of a protective antitumour immune response. Intriguingly, early after PDT the cancer cells displayed ecto-CRT and secreted ATP before exhibiting biochemical signatures of apoptosis, through overlapping PERK-orchestrated pathways that require a functional secretory pathway and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-mediated plasma membrane/extracellular trafficking. Interestingly, eIF2α phosphorylation and caspase-8 signalling are dispensable for this ecto-CRT exposure. We also identified LRP1/CD91 as the surface docking site for ecto-CRT and found that depletion of PERK, PI3K p110α and LRP1 but not caspase-8 reduced the immunogenicity of the cancer cells. These results unravel a novel PERK-dependent subroutine for the early and simultaneous emission of two critical DAMPs following ROS-mediated ER stress.
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              FADD, a novel death domain-containing protein, interacts with the death domain of Fas and initiates apoptosis.

              Using the cytoplasmic domain of Fas in the yeast two-hybrid system, we have identified a novel interacting protein, FADD, which binds Fas and Fas-FD5, a mutant of Fas possessing enhanced killing activity, but not the functionally inactive mutants Fas-LPR and Fas-FD8. FADD contains a death domain homologous to the death domains of Fas and TNFR-1. A point mutation in FADD, analogous to the lpr mutation of Fas, abolishes its ability to bind Fas, suggesting a death domain to death domain interaction. Overexpression of FADD in MCF7 and BJAB cells induces apoptosis, which, like Fas-induced apoptosis, is blocked by CrmA, a specific inhibitor of the interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme. These findings suggest that FADD may play an important role in the proximal signal transduction of Fas.

                Author and article information

                Contributors
                caizhengdong@sjtu.edu.cn
                Journal
                J Cell Mol Med
                J. Cell. Mol. Med
                10.1111/(ISSN)1582-4934
                JCMM
                Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine
                John Wiley and Sons Inc. (Hoboken )
                1582-1838
                1582-4934
                18 June 2019
                August 2019
                : 23
                : 8 ( doiID: 10.1111/jcmm.2019.23.issue-8 )
                : 4854-4865
                Affiliations
                [ 1 ] Department of Orthopaedics Shanghai Bone Tumor Institute, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine Shanghai China
                [ 2 ] Fourth Clinical College Xinxiang Medical University Henan China
                [ 3 ] Department of Oncology Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine Shanghai PR China
                Author notes
                [*] [* ] Correspondence

                Zhengdong Cai, Department of Orthopaedics, Shanghai Bone Tumor Institute, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 100 Haining Road Shanghai; Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.

                Email: caizhengdong@ 123456sjtu.edu.cn

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1560-7684
                Article
                JCMM14356
                10.1111/jcmm.14356
                6653385
                31210425
                50961996-303a-4911-8de7-136281f99de4
                © 2019 The Authors. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd and Foundation for Cellular and Molecular Medicine.

                This is an open access article under the terms of the http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 22 January 2019
                : 07 April 2019
                : 12 April 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 3, Tables: 2, Pages: 12, Words: 8443
                Funding
                Funded by: Shanghai Jiaotong University Translation Medicine Cross Research Fund
                Award ID: ZH2018QNA17
                Funded by: Shanghai Sailing Program
                Award ID: 19YF1440200
                Funded by: National Natural Science Foundation of China
                Award ID: 81202115
                Funded by: Doctoral Innovation Fund of Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine
                Award ID: BXJ201732
                Categories
                Review
                Reviews
                Custom metadata
                2.0
                jcmm14356
                August 2019
                Converter:WILEY_ML3GV2_TO_NLMPMC version:5.6.6.2 mode:remove_FC converted:24.07.2019

                Molecular medicine
                antitumour effects,damage‐associated molecular patterns,dendritic cells,icd inducers,immune system,immunogenic cancer cell death

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