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      Detection of Aflatoxins in Different Matrices and Food-Chain Positions

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          Abstract

          Aflatoxins, produced mainly by filamentous fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, are one of the most carcinogenic compounds that have adverse health effects on both humans and animals consuming contaminated food and feed, respectively. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and aflatoxin B2 (AFB2) as well as aflatoxin G1(AFG1) and aflatoxin G2 (AFG2) occur in the contaminated foods and feed. In the case of dairy ruminants, after the consumption of feed contaminated with aflatoxins, aflatoxin metabolites [aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and aflatoxin M2 (AFM2)] may appear in milk. Because of the health risk and the official maximum limits of aflatoxins, there is a need for application of fast and accurate testing methods. At present, there are several analytical methods applied in practice for determination of aflatoxins. The aim of this review is to provide a guide that summarizes worldwide aflatoxin regulations and analytical methods for determination of aflatoxins in different food and feed matrices, that helps in the decision to choose the most appropriate method that meets the practical requirements of fast and sensitive control of their contamination. Analytical options are outlined from the simplest and fastest methods with the smallest instrument requirements, through separation methods, to the latest hyphenated techniques.

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          Determination of organic compounds in water using dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction.

          A new microextraction technique termed dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) was developed. DLLME is a very simple and rapid method for extraction and preconcentration of organic compounds from water samples. In this method, the appropriate mixture of extraction solvent (8.0 microL C2Cl4) and disperser solvent (1.00 mL acetone) are injected into the aqueous sample (5.00 mL) by syringe, rapidly. Therefore, cloudy solution is formed. In fact, it is consisted of fine particles of extraction solvent which is dispersed entirely into aqueous phase. After centrifuging, the fine particles of extraction solvent are sedimented in the bottom of the conical test tube (5.0 +/- 0.2 microL). The performance of DLLME is illustrated with the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in water samples by using gas chromatography-flame ionization detection (GC-FID). Some important parameters, such as kind of extraction and disperser solvent and volume of them, and extraction time were investigated. Under the optimum conditions the enrichment factor ranged from 603 to 1113 and the recovery ranged from 60.3 to 111.3%. The linear range was 0.02-200 microg/L (four orders of magnitude) and limit of detection was 0.007-0.030 microg/L for most of analytes. The relative standard deviations (RSDs) for 2 microg/L of PAHs in water by using internal standard were in the range 1.4-10.2% (n = 5). The recoveries of PAHs from surface water at spiking level of 5.0 microg/L were 82.0-111.0%. The ability of DLLME technique in the extraction of other organic compounds such as organochlorine pesticides, organophosphorus pesticides and substituted benzene compounds (benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylenes) from water samples were studied. The advantages of DLLME method are simplicity of operation, rapidity, low cost, high recovery, and enrichment factor.
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            Analytical methods for determination of mycotoxins: a review.

            Mycotoxins are small (MW approximately 700), toxic chemical products formed as secondary metabolites by a few fungal species that readily colonise crops and contaminate them with toxins in the field or after harvest. Ochratoxins and Aflatoxins are mycotoxins of major significance and hence there has been significant research on broad range of analytical and detection techniques that could be useful and practical. Due to the variety of structures of these toxins, it is impossible to use one standard technique for analysis and/or detection. Practical requirements for high-sensitivity analysis and the need for a specialist laboratory setting create challenges for routine analysis. Several existing analytical techniques, which offer flexible and broad-based methods of analysis and in some cases detection, have been discussed in this manuscript. There are a number of methods used, of which many are lab-based, but to our knowledge there seems to be no single technique that stands out above the rest, although analytical liquid chromatography, commonly linked with mass spectroscopy is likely to be popular. This review manuscript discusses (a) sample pre-treatment methods such as liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), solid phase extraction (SPE), (b) separation methods such as (TLC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography (GC), and capillary electrophoresis (CE) and (c) others such as ELISA. Further currents trends, advantages and disadvantages and future prospects of these methods have been discussed.
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              Commercialization of microfluidic devices.

              Microfluidic devices offer automation and high-throughput screening, and operate at low volumes of consumables. Although microfluidics has the potential to reduce turnaround times and costs for analytical devices, particularly in medical, veterinary, and environmental sciences, this enabling technology has had limited diffusion into consumer products. This article analyzes the microfluidics market, identifies issues, and highlights successful commercialization strategies. Addressing niche markets and establishing compatibility with existing workflows will accelerate market penetration.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Microbiol
                Front Microbiol
                Front. Microbiol.
                Frontiers in Microbiology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1664-302X
                14 August 2020
                2020
                : 11
                : 1916
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Székesfehérvár Regional Food Chain Laboratory, National Food Chain Safety Office , Székesfehérvár, Hungary
                [2] 2Fumizol Ltd. , Szeged, Hungary
                [3] 3University of Debrecen Doctoral School of Nutrition and Food Sciences , Debrecen, Hungary
                [4] 4Food Chain Safety Laboratory Directorate, National Food Chain Safety Office , Budapest, Hungary
                [5] 5System Management and Supervision Directorate, National Food Chain Safety Office , Budapest, Hungary
                [6] 6Digital Food Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Budapest , Budapest, Hungary
                Author notes

                Edited by: Javier Carballo, University of Vigo, Spain

                Reviewed by: Daniela Jakšić, University of Zagreb, Croatia; Masoomeh Shams-Ghahfarokhi, Tarbiat Modares University, Iran

                *Correspondence: Gabriella Miklós, miklosg@ 123456nebih.gov.hu

                This article was submitted to Food Microbiology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Microbiology

                Article
                10.3389/fmicb.2020.01916
                7480073
                32983001
                5344454a-8a5c-43f3-a773-c1312b8176ed
                Copyright © 2020 Miklós, Angeli, Ambrus, Nagy, Kardos, Zentai, Kerekes, Farkas, Jóźwiak and Bartók.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 05 August 2019
                : 21 July 2020
                Page count
                Figures: 6, Tables: 1, Equations: 0, References: 133, Pages: 21, Words: 0
                Funding
                Funded by: Nemzeti Kutatási, Fejlesztési és Innovaciós Alap 10.13039/501100012550
                Categories
                Microbiology
                Review

                Microbiology & Virology
                aflatoxins,lod,loq,limits,extraction,clean-up,analysis,detection
                Microbiology & Virology
                aflatoxins, lod, loq, limits, extraction, clean-up, analysis, detection

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