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      Mixotrophic cultivation of Spirulina platensis in dairy wastewater: Effects on the production of biomass, biochemical composition and antioxidant capacity

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          Abstract

          Mixotrophic cultivation of microalgae provides a very promising alternative for producing carbohydrate-rich biomass to convert into bioethanol and value-added biocompounds, such as vitamins, pigments, proteins, lipids and antioxidant compounds. Spirulina platensis may present high yields of biomass and carbohydrates when it is grown under mixotrophic conditions using cheese whey. However, there are no previous studies evaluating the influence of this culture system on the profile of fatty acids or antioxidant compounds of this species, which are extremely important for food and pharmaceutical applications and would add value to the cultivation process. S. platensis presented higher specific growth rates, biomass productivity and carbohydrate content under mixotrophic conditions; however, the antioxidant capacity and the protein and lipid content were lower than that of the autotrophic culture. The maximum biomass yield was 2.98 ±0.07 g/L in growth medium with 5.0% whey. The phenolic compound concentration was the same for the biomass obtained under autotrophic and mixotrophic conditions with 2.5% and 5.0% whey. The phenolic compound concentrations showed no significant differences except for that in the growth medium with 10.0% whey, which presented an average value of 22.37±0.14 mg gallic acid/g. Mixotrophic cultivation of S. platensis using whey can be considered a viable alternative to reduce the costs of producing S. platensis biomass and carbohydrates, shorten cultivation time and produce carbohydrates, as it does not require adding expensive chemical nutrients to the growth medium and also takes advantage of cheese whey, an adverse dairy industry byproduct.

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          Most cited references42

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          Microalgal lipids biochemistry and biotechnological perspectives.

          In the last few years, there has been an intense interest in using microalgal lipids in food, chemical and pharmaceutical industries and cosmetology, while a noteworthy research has been performed focusing on all aspects of microalgal lipid production. This includes basic research on the pathways of solar energy conversion and on lipid biosynthesis and catabolism, and applied research dealing with the various biological and technical bottlenecks of the lipid production process. In here, we review the current knowledge in microalgal lipids with respect to their metabolism and various biotechnological applications, and we discuss potential future perspectives. The committing step in fatty acid biosynthesis is the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA to form malonyl-CoA that is then introduced in the fatty acid synthesis cycle leading to the formation of palmitic and stearic acids. Oleic acid may also be synthesized after stearic acid desaturation while further conversions of the fatty acids (i.e. desaturations, elongations) occur after their esterification with structural lipids of both plastids and the endoplasmic reticulum. The aliphatic chains are also used as building blocks for structuring storage acylglycerols via the Kennedy pathway. Current research, aiming to enhance lipogenesis in the microalgal cell, is focusing on over-expressing key-enzymes involved in the earlier steps of the pathway of fatty acid synthesis. A complementary plan would be the repression of lipid catabolism by down-regulating acylglycerol hydrolysis and/or β-oxidation. The tendency of oleaginous microalgae to synthesize, apart from lipids, significant amounts of other energy-rich compounds such as sugars, in processes competitive to lipogenesis, deserves attention since the lipid yield may be considerably increased by blocking competitive metabolic pathways. The majority of microalgal production occurs in outdoor cultivation and for this reason biotechnological applications face some difficulties. Therefore, algal production systems need to be improved and harvesting systems need to be more effective in order for their industrial applications to become more competitive and economically viable. Besides, a reduction of the production cost of microalgal lipids can be achieved by combining lipid production with other commercial applications. The combined production of bioactive products and lipids, when possible, can support the commercial viability of both processes. Hydrophobic compounds can be extracted simultaneously with lipids and then purified, while hydrophilic compounds such as proteins and sugars may be extracted from the defatted biomass. The microalgae also have applications in environmental biotechnology since they can be used for bioremediation of wastewater and to monitor environmental toxicants. Algal biomass produced during wastewater treatment may be further valorized in the biofuel manufacture. It is anticipated that the high microalgal lipid potential will force research towards finding effective ways to manipulate biochemical pathways involved in lipid biosynthesis and towards cost effective algal cultivation and harvesting systems, as well. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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            Perspectives on the feasibility of using microalgae for industrial wastewater treatment.

            Although microalgae can serve as an appropriate alternative feedstock for biofuel production, the high microalgal cultivation cost has been a major obstacle for commercializing such attempts. One of the feasible solution for cost reduction is to couple microalgal biofuel production system with wastewater treatment, as microalgae are known to effectively eliminate a variety of nutrients/pollutants in wastewater, such as nitrogen/phosphate, organic carbons, VFAs, pharmaceutical compounds, textile dye compounds, and heavy metals. This review aims to critically discuss the feasibility of microalgae-based wastewater treatment, including the strategies for strain selection, the effect of wastewater types, photobioreactor design, economic feasibility assessment, and other key issues that influence the treatment performance. The potential of microalgae-bacteria consortium for treatment of industrial wastewaters is also discussed. This review provides useful information for developing an integrated wastewater treatment with microalgal biomass and biofuel production facilities and establishing efficient co-cultivation for microalgae and bacteria in such systems.
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              Microalgae biomass as an alternative ingredient in cookies: Sensory, physical and chemical properties, antioxidant activity and in vitro digestibility

                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Funding acquisitionRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: SoftwareRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: Funding acquisitionRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: ValidationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                24 October 2019
                2019
                : 14
                : 10
                : e0224294
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Agricultural School of Jundiaí, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
                [2 ] Department of Systematic Ecology, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
                [3 ] Department of Oceanography and Limnology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
                Institute for Biological Research, SERBIA
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                [¤]

                Current address: Infrastructure Superintendence, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil.

                These authors also contributed equally to this work.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0344-550X
                Article
                PONE-D-19-15520
                10.1371/journal.pone.0224294
                6812818
                31648264
                55d2fff4-ce8e-42b3-8778-bb1dadd5e411
                © 2019 Pereira et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 31 May 2019
                : 9 October 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 4, Tables: 6, Pages: 17
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100002322, Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior;
                Award Recipient :
                This work is part of the first author's Master Dissertation. The author MIBP received a master’s degree fellowship from Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES).
                Categories
                Research Article
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Biochemistry
                Antioxidants
                Physical Sciences
                Chemistry
                Chemical Compounds
                Organic Compounds
                Carbohydrates
                Physical Sciences
                Chemistry
                Organic Chemistry
                Organic Compounds
                Carbohydrates
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Nutrition
                Diet
                Food
                Cheeses
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Nutrition
                Diet
                Food
                Cheeses
                Physical Sciences
                Chemistry
                Chemical Compounds
                Phenols
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Biochemistry
                Lipids
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Biochemistry
                Lipids
                Fatty Acids
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Ecology
                Ecological Metrics
                Ecological Productivity
                Ecology and Environmental Sciences
                Ecology
                Ecological Metrics
                Ecological Productivity
                Engineering and Technology
                Energy and Power
                Bioenergy
                Biofuels
                Bioalcohols
                Bioethanol
                Engineering and Technology
                Energy and Power
                Fuels
                Biofuels
                Bioalcohols
                Bioethanol
                Physical Sciences
                Materials Science
                Materials
                Fuels
                Biofuels
                Bioalcohols
                Bioethanol
                Custom metadata
                All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

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