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      Cost per patient of treatment for rifampicin‐resistant tuberculosis in a community‐based programme in Khayelitsha, South Africa

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          Summary

          Objectives

          The high cost of rifampicin‐resistant tuberculosis ( RRTB) treatment hinders treatment access. South Africa has a high RRTB burden, and national policy outlines decentralisation to improve access and reduce costs. We analysed health system costs associated with RRTB treatment by drug resistance profile and treatment outcome in a decentralised programme.

          Methods

          Retrospective, routinely collected patient‐level data were combined with unit cost data to determine costs for each patient in a cohort treated between January 2009 and December 2011. Drug costs were based on recommended regimens according to drug resistance and treatment duration. Hospitalisation costs were estimated based on admission/discharge dates, while clinic visit and diagnostic/monitoring costs were estimated according to recommendations and treatment duration. Missing data were imputed.

          Results

          Among 467 patients (72% HIV infected), 49% were successfully treated. Treatment was initiated in primary care for 62%, with the remainder as inpatients. The mean cost per patient treated was $7916 (range 260–87 140), ranging from $5369 among patients who did not complete treatment to $23 006 for treatment failure. Mean cost for successful treatment was $8359 (2585–32 506). Second‐line drug resistance was associated with a mean cost of $15 567 vs. $6852 for only first‐line resistance, with the major cost difference due to hospitalisation. Costs are reported in 2013 USD.

          Conclusions

          RRTB treatment cost was high and varied according to treatment outcome. Despite decentralisation, hospitalisation remained a significant cost, particularly among those with more extensive resistance and those with treatment failure. These cost estimates can be used to model the impact of new interventions to improve patient outcomes.

          Translated abstract

          Objectifs

          Le coût élevé du traitement de la tuberculose résistante à la rifampicine ( TBRR) empêche l'accès au traitement. L'Afrique du Sud subie une forte charge de TBRR et la politique nationale applique la décentralisation pour améliorer l'accès et réduire les coûts. Nous avons analysé les coûts du système de santé associés au traitement de la TBRR selon le profil de résistance aux médicaments et le résultat du traitement, dans un programme décentralisé.

          Méthodes

          Les données rétrospectives à l’échelle du patient, systématiquement recueillies ont été combinées avec les données des coûts unitaires pour déterminer les coûts pour chaque patient dans une cohorte traitée entre janvier 2009 et décembre 2011. Les coûts des médicaments ont été basés sur les schémas recommandés selon la résistance aux médicaments et la durée de traitement. Les coûts d'hospitalisation ont été estimés sur base des dates d'admission/de sortie, alors que les coûts des visites à la clinique et du diagnostic/suivi ont été estimés selon les recommandations et la durée du traitement. Les données manquantes ont été prises en compte.

          Résultats

          Sur 467 patients (72% infectés par le VIH), 49% ont été traités avec succès. Le traitement a été initié dans les soins primaires pour 62% et pour les autres en tant que patients hospitalisés. Le coût moyen par malade traité était de 7916$ (intervalle: 260–87 140); allant de 5369$ chez les patients qui n'ont pas terminé le traitement à 23 006 $ pour l’échec du traitement. Le coût moyen pour un traitement avec succès était de 8359 $ (2585–32 506). La résistance aux médicaments de 2nd ligne a été associée à un coût moyen de 15 567 $ par rapport à 6852 $ pour la résistance de première ligne seule, avec la plus importante différence de coût due à l'hospitalisation. Coûts estimés sur base de l’ USD 2013.

          Conclusions

          Le coût du traitement de la TBRR était élevé et varie en fonction de l'issue du traitement. Malgré la décentralisation, l'hospitalisation est restée une source de coût important, en particulier pour ceux avec une résistance plus étendue et ceux avec un échec de traitement. Ces estimations de coûts peuvent être utilisées pour modéliser l'impact de nouvelles interventions visant à améliorer les résultats des patients.

          Translated abstract

          Objetivos

          El alto coste del tratamiento de la tuberculosis resistente a la rifampicina ( TBRR) dificulta el acceso al tratamiento. Sudáfrica tiene una gran carga de TBRR, y las políticas nacionales hacen énfasis en la descentralización con el fin de mejorar el acceso y reducir los costes. Hemos analizado los costes del sistema sanitario asociados al tratamiento de la TBRR, en un programa descentralizado, según el perfil de resistencia y el resultado del tratamiento.

          Métodos

          De forma retrospectiva, combinamos datos rutinarios de pacientes con datos de coste unitarios para determinar los costes por paciente dentro de una cohorte tratada entre Enero del 2009 y Diciembre del 2011. Los costes de medicamentos se calcularon sobre los regimenes recomendados según los niveles de resistencia y la duración del tratamiento. Los costes de hospitalización se calcularon basándose en las fechas de admisión/alta, mientras que las visitas a la clínica y los costes de diagnóstico / monitorización se calcularon según las recomendaciones y la duración del tratamiento. Los datos faltantes fueron imputados.

          Resultados

          De 467 pacientes (72% infectados con VIH), un 49% fueron tratados con éxito. El tratamiento se inició en atención primaria para un 62%, con el resto como pacientes hospitalizados. El coste medio por paciente tratado era de $7916 (rango 260–87 140); desde $5369 para pacientes que no completaban el tratamiento hasta $23 006 cuando había fallo en el tratamiento. El coste medio para un tratamiento exitoso era de $8359 (2585–32 506). La resistencia a la segunda línea de tratamiento estaba asociada con un coste medio de $15 567 versus $6852 para solo la primera línea de tratamiento, siendo el de la hospitalización la mayor diferencia en el coste. Los costes se reportaron en USD del 2013.

          Conclusiones

          Los costes de tratamiento de la TBRR eran altos y variaban según el resultado del tratamiento. A pesar de la descentralización, la hospitalización seguía siendo un coste significativo, particularmente entre aquellos con resistencias más extensas y quienes presentaban fallo en el tratamiento. Los costes aquí calculados pueden utilizarse para modelar el impacto de nuevas intervenciones que mejoren los resultados en pacientes.

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          Most cited references10

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          What is the Cost of Diagnosis and Management of Drug Resistant Tuberculosis in South Africa?

          Background Drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) is undermining TB control in South Africa. However, there are hardly any data about the cost of treating DR-TB in high burden settings despite such information being quintessential for the rational planning and allocation of resources by policy-makers, and to inform future cost-effectiveness analyses. Methodology We analysed the comparative 2011 United States dollar ($) cost of diagnosis and treatment of drug sensitive TB (DS-TB), MDR-TB and XDR-TB, based on National South African TB guidelines, from the perspective of the National TB Program using published clinical outcome data. Principal Findings Assuming adherence to national DR-TB management guidelines, the per patient cost of XDR-TB was $26,392, four times greater than MDR-TB ($6772), and 103 times greater than drug-sensitive TB ($257). Despite DR-TB comprising only 2.2% of the case burden, it consumed ∼32% of the total estimated 2011 national TB budget of US $218 million. 45% and 25% of the DR-TB costs were attributed to anti-TB drugs and hospitalization, respectively. XDR-TB consumed 28% of the total DR-TB diagnosis and treatment costs. Laboratory testing and anti-TB drugs comprised the majority (71%) of MDR-TB costs while hospitalization and anti-TB drug costs comprised the majority (92%) of XDR-TB costs. A decentralized XDR-TB treatment programme could potentially reduce costs by $6930 (26%) per case and reduce the total amount spent on DR-TB by ∼7%. Conclusion/Significance Although DR-TB forms a very small proportion of the total case burden it consumes a disproportionate and substantial amount of South Africa’s total annual TB budget. These data inform rational resource allocation and selection of management strategies for DR-TB in high burden settings.
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            Extensive drug resistance acquired during treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis.

            Increasing access to drugs for the treatment of multidrug-resistant (MDR) tuberculosis is crucial but could lead to increasing resistance to these same drugs. In 2000, the international Green Light Committee (GLC) initiative began to increase access while attempting to prevent acquired resistance.
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              Community-based treatment of drug-resistant tuberculosis in Khayelitsha, South Africa.

              Khayelitsha, South Africa, a peri-urban township with high burdens of tuberculosis (TB), drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. To describe case detection and patient outcomes in a community-based DR-TB programme. DR-TB management was integrated into primary health care in Khayelitsha from 2007 onwards. Implementation was incremental, and included training and clinician support, counselling and home visits, tuberculous infection control, a local in-patient service, and routine monitoring. Patients received treatment rapidly through their local clinic, and were only hospitalised if clinically unwell. DR-TB case notification (any rifampicin resistance) increased from 28 per 100 000 population per year (2005-2007) to 55/100 000/year in 2009-2011 (72% HIV-infected). From 2008 to 2011, 754 patients received treatment (86% of those diagnosed). The median time between diagnostic sputum and treatment decreased over the years of implementation to 27 days in 2011 (P < 0.001). Treatment success was 52% in 2010, with 31% default, 13% death and 4% treatment failure. Two-year survival was 65%, with poorer survival in those with HIV (HR 2.0, 95%CI 1.4-2.8), second-line drug resistance (HR 3.3, 95%CI 2.2-4.8), and diagnosis in earlier programme years (HR 1.4, 95%CI 1.1-2.0). Community-based DR-TB management is feasible, and contributes to improved case detection, reduced treatment delay and improved survival. Treatment outcomes remain poor, highlighting the poor efficacy, tolerability and lengthy duration of current treatment.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Trop Med Int Health
                Trop. Med. Int. Health
                10.1111/(ISSN)1365-3156
                TMI
                Tropical Medicine & International Health
                John Wiley and Sons Inc. (Hoboken )
                1360-2276
                1365-3156
                01 June 2015
                October 2015
                : 20
                : 10 ( doiID: 10.1111/tmi.2015.20.issue-10 )
                : 1337-1345
                Affiliations
                [ 1 ] Division of Medical Microbiology and Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine University of Cape Town Cape TownSouth Africa
                [ 2 ] Health Economics UnitUniversity of Cape Town Cape TownSouth Africa
                [ 3 ]Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) KhayelitshaSouth Africa
                [ 4 ]City of Cape Town Health Department KhayelitshaSouth Africa
                Author notes
                [*] [* ] Corresponding Author Helen Cox, Division of Medical Microbiology and Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, Anzio Road, Observatory 7925, South Africa. Tel.: +27 (0)21 650 1860; +27 (0)21 406 6217; E‐mail: helen.cox@ 123456uct.ac.za
                Article
                TMI12544
                10.1111/tmi.12544
                4864411
                25975868
                55f16b22-0699-494e-a21b-70dff8357218
                © 2015 The Authors. Tropical Medicine & International Health Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

                This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                Page count
                Pages: 9
                Categories
                Original Article
                Original Research Papers
                Custom metadata
                2.0
                tmi12544
                October 2015
                Converter:WILEY_ML3GV2_TO_NLMPMC version:4.9.1 mode:remove_FC converted:24.06.2016

                Medicine
                multidrug‐resistant tuberculosis,rifampicin‐resistant tuberculosis,treatment,cost,decentralisation,south africa,tb‐mdr,tb‐rr,traitement,coût,décentralisation,afrique du sud

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