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      Sequence-based genome-wide association study of individual milk mid-infrared wavenumbers in mixed-breed dairy cattle

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          Abstract

          Background

          Fourier-transform mid-infrared (FT-MIR) spectroscopy provides a high-throughput and inexpensive method for predicting milk composition and other novel traits from milk samples. While there have been many genome-wide association studies (GWAS) conducted on FT-MIR predicted traits, there have been few GWAS for individual FT-MIR wavenumbers. Using imputed whole-genome sequence for 38,085 mixed-breed New Zealand dairy cattle, we conducted GWAS on 895 individual FT-MIR wavenumber phenotypes, and assessed the value of these direct phenotypes for identifying candidate causal genes and variants, and improving our understanding of the physico-chemical properties of milk.

          Results

          Separate GWAS conducted for each of 895 individual FT-MIR wavenumber phenotypes, identified 450 1-Mbp genomic regions with significant FT-MIR wavenumber QTL, compared to 246 1-Mbp genomic regions with QTL identified for FT-MIR predicted milk composition traits. Use of mammary RNA-seq data and gene annotation information identified 38 co-localized and co-segregating expression QTL (eQTL), and 31 protein-sequence mutations for FT-MIR wavenumber phenotypes, the latter including a null mutation in the ABO gene that has a potential role in changing milk oligosaccharide profiles. For the candidate causative genes implicated in these analyses, we examined the strength of association between relevant loci and each wavenumber across the mid-infrared spectrum. This revealed shared association patterns for groups of genomically-distant loci, highlighting clusters of loci linked through their biological roles in lactation and their presumed impacts on the chemical composition of milk.

          Conclusions

          This study demonstrates the utility of FT-MIR wavenumber phenotypes for improving our understanding of milk composition, presenting a larger number of QTL and putative causative genes and variants than found from FT-MIR predicted composition traits. Examining patterns of significance across the mid-infrared spectrum for loci of interest further highlighted commonalities of association, which likely reflects the physico-chemical properties of milk constituents.

          Supplementary Information

          The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12711-021-00648-9.

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          Most cited references108

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          Fast and accurate short read alignment with Burrows–Wheeler transform

          Motivation: The enormous amount of short reads generated by the new DNA sequencing technologies call for the development of fast and accurate read alignment programs. A first generation of hash table-based methods has been developed, including MAQ, which is accurate, feature rich and fast enough to align short reads from a single individual. However, MAQ does not support gapped alignment for single-end reads, which makes it unsuitable for alignment of longer reads where indels may occur frequently. The speed of MAQ is also a concern when the alignment is scaled up to the resequencing of hundreds of individuals. Results: We implemented Burrows-Wheeler Alignment tool (BWA), a new read alignment package that is based on backward search with Burrows–Wheeler Transform (BWT), to efficiently align short sequencing reads against a large reference sequence such as the human genome, allowing mismatches and gaps. BWA supports both base space reads, e.g. from Illumina sequencing machines, and color space reads from AB SOLiD machines. Evaluations on both simulated and real data suggest that BWA is ∼10–20× faster than MAQ, while achieving similar accuracy. In addition, BWA outputs alignment in the new standard SAM (Sequence Alignment/Map) format. Variant calling and other downstream analyses after the alignment can be achieved with the open source SAMtools software package. Availability: http://maq.sourceforge.net Contact: rd@sanger.ac.uk
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            A program for annotating and predicting the effects of single nucleotide polymorphisms, SnpEff: SNPs in the genome of Drosophila melanogaster strain w1118; iso-2; iso-3.

            We describe a new computer program, SnpEff, for rapidly categorizing the effects of variants in genome sequences. Once a genome is sequenced, SnpEff annotates variants based on their genomic locations and predicts coding effects. Annotated genomic locations include intronic, untranslated region, upstream, downstream, splice site, or intergenic regions. Coding effects such as synonymous or non-synonymous amino acid replacement, start codon gains or losses, stop codon gains or losses, or frame shifts can be predicted. Here the use of SnpEff is illustrated by annotating ~356,660 candidate SNPs in ~117 Mb unique sequences, representing a substitution rate of ~1/305 nucleotides, between the Drosophila melanogaster w(1118); iso-2; iso-3 strain and the reference y(1); cn(1) bw(1) sp(1) strain. We show that ~15,842 SNPs are synonymous and ~4,467 SNPs are non-synonymous (N/S ~0.28). The remaining SNPs are in other categories, such as stop codon gains (38 SNPs), stop codon losses (8 SNPs), and start codon gains (297 SNPs) in the 5'UTR. We found, as expected, that the SNP frequency is proportional to the recombination frequency (i.e., highest in the middle of chromosome arms). We also found that start-gain or stop-lost SNPs in Drosophila melanogaster often result in additions of N-terminal or C-terminal amino acids that are conserved in other Drosophila species. It appears that the 5' and 3' UTRs are reservoirs for genetic variations that changes the termini of proteins during evolution of the Drosophila genus. As genome sequencing is becoming inexpensive and routine, SnpEff enables rapid analyses of whole-genome sequencing data to be performed by an individual laboratory.
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              TopHat2: accurate alignment of transcriptomes in the presence of insertions, deletions and gene fusions

              TopHat is a popular spliced aligner for RNA-sequence (RNA-seq) experiments. In this paper, we describe TopHat2, which incorporates many significant enhancements to TopHat. TopHat2 can align reads of various lengths produced by the latest sequencing technologies, while allowing for variable-length indels with respect to the reference genome. In addition to de novo spliced alignment, TopHat2 can align reads across fusion breaks, which can occur after genomic translocations. TopHat2 combines the ability to identify novel splice sites with direct mapping to known transcripts, producing sensitive and accurate alignments, even for highly repetitive genomes or in the presence of pseudogenes. TopHat2 is available at http://ccb.jhu.edu/software/tophat.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Kathryn.Sanders@lic.co.nz
                thomas.lopdell@lic.co.nz
                edwardo.reynolds.1@uni.massey.ac.nz
                ric.sherlock@lic.co.nz
                m.a.keehan@gmail.com
                thomas.johnson@lic.co.nz
                jennie.pryce@agriculture.vic.gov.au
                steve.davis@lic.co.nz
                richard.spelman@lic.co.nz
                bevin.harris@lic.co.nz
                d.garrick@massey.ac.nz
                mathew.littlejohn@lic.co.nz
                Journal
                Genet Sel Evol
                Genet Sel Evol
                Genetics, Selection, Evolution : GSE
                BioMed Central (London )
                0999-193X
                1297-9686
                20 July 2021
                20 July 2021
                2021
                : 53
                : 62
                Affiliations
                [1 ]GRID grid.466921.e, ISNI 0000 0001 0251 0731, Research and Development, , Livestock Improvement Corporation, ; Private Bag 3016, Hamilton, 3240 New Zealand
                [2 ]GRID grid.148374.d, ISNI 0000 0001 0696 9806, School of Agriculture, , Massey University, ; Ruakura, Hamilton, 3240 New Zealand
                [3 ]GRID grid.1018.8, ISNI 0000 0001 2342 0938, School of Applied Systems Biology, , La Trobe University, ; Bundoora, VIC 3083 Australia
                [4 ]Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Bundoora, VIC 3083 Australia
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3307-9208
                Article
                648
                10.1186/s12711-021-00648-9
                8290608
                34284721
                55f7cf3f-387e-43ca-b65d-5b9a7efb6a88
                © The Author(s) 2021

                Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

                History
                : 4 December 2020
                : 22 June 2021
                Funding
                Funded by: Livestock Improvement Corporation
                Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100008640, Ministry of Primary Industries;
                Categories
                Research Article
                Custom metadata
                © The Author(s) 2021

                Genetics
                Genetics

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