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      Lead content in wild game shot with lead or non-lead ammunition – Does “state of the art consumer health protection” require non-lead ammunition?

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          Abstract

          The toxicity of lead has been known for a long time, and no safe uptake level can be derived for humans. Consumers’ intake via food should therefore be kept as low as possible. Game meat can contain elevated levels of lead due to the use of lead ammunition for hunting. A risk assessment conducted in 2010 by the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment including various consumption scenarios revealed a possible health risk for extreme consumers of game meat hunted with lead ammunition (i.e. hunters and members of hunters’ households). Babies, infants, children and women of childbearing age were identified as vulnerable group with regards to the developmental neurotoxicity of lead. It was noted, that a sound data base was required in order to refine the assessment. Therefore, the research project “Safety of game meat obtained through hunting” (LEMISI) has been conducted in Germany, with the aims of determining the concentrations of lead (as well as of copper and zinc) brought into the edible parts of game meat (roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus) and wild boar ( Sus scrofa)) due to using either lead or non-lead hunting ammunition, whilst concurrently taking geogenic (i.e. “background”) levels of lead into account. Compared to non-lead ammunition, lead ammunition significantly increased lead concentrations in the game meat. The use of both lead and non-lead ammunition deposited copper and zinc in the edible parts of game meat, and the concentrations were in the range of those detected regularly in meat of farm animals. For the average consumer of game meat in Germany the additional uptake of lead only makes a minor contribution to the average alimentary lead exposure. However, for consumers from hunters’ households the resulting uptake of lead–due to lead ammunition—can be several times higher than the average alimentary lead exposure. Non-lead bullets in combination with suitable game meat hygienic measures are therefore recommended in order to ensure “state of the art consumer health protection”.

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          Low-Level Environmental Lead Exposure and Children’s Intellectual Function: An International Pooled Analysis

          Lead is a confirmed neurotoxin, but questions remain about lead-associated intellectual deficits at blood lead levels < 10 μg/dL and whether lower exposures are, for a given change in exposure, associated with greater deficits. The objective of this study was to examine the association of intelligence test scores and blood lead concentration, especially for children who had maximal measured blood lead levels < 10 μg/dL. We examined data collected from 1,333 children who participated in seven international population-based longitudinal cohort studies, followed from birth or infancy until 5–10 years of age. The full-scale IQ score was the primary outcome measure. The geometric mean blood lead concentration of the children peaked at 17.8 μg/dL and declined to 9.4 μg/dL by 5–7 years of age; 244 (18%) children had a maximal blood lead concentration < 10 μg/dL, and 103 (8%) had a maximal blood lead concentration < 7.5 μg/dL. After adjustment for covariates, we found an inverse relationship between blood lead concentration and IQ score. Using a log-linear model, we found a 6.9 IQ point decrement [95% confidence interval (CI), 4.2–9.4] associated with an increase in concurrent blood lead levels from 2.4 to 30 μg/dL. The estimated IQ point decrements associated with an increase in blood lead from 2.4 to 10 μg/dL, 10 to 20 μg/dL, and 20 to 30 μg/dL were 3.9 (95% CI, 2.4–5.3), 1.9 (95% CI, 1.2–2.6), and 1.1 (95% CI, 0.7–1.5), respectively. For a given increase in blood lead, the lead-associated intellectual decrement for children with a maximal blood lead level < 7.5 μg/dL was significantly greater than that observed for those with a maximal blood lead level ≥7.5 μg/dL (p = 0.015). We conclude that environmental lead exposure in children who have maximal blood lead levels < 7.5 μg/dL is associated with intellectual deficits.
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            Intellectual impairment in children with blood lead concentrations below 10 microg per deciliter.

            Despite dramatic declines in children's blood lead concentrations and a lowering of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's level of concern to 10 microg per deciliter (0.483 micromol per liter), little is known about children's neurobehavioral functioning at lead concentrations below this level. We measured blood lead concentrations in 172 children at 6, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, and 60 months of age and administered the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale at the ages of 3 and 5 years. The relation between IQ and blood lead concentration was estimated with the use of linear and nonlinear mixed models, with adjustment for maternal IQ, quality of the home environment, and other potential confounders. The blood lead concentration was inversely and significantly associated with IQ. In the linear model, each increase of 10 microg per deciliter in the lifetime average blood lead concentration was associated with a 4.6-point decrease in IQ (P=0.004), whereas for the subsample of 101 children whose maximal lead concentrations remained below 10 microg per deciliter, the change in IQ associated with a given change in lead concentration was greater. When estimated in a nonlinear model with the full sample, IQ declined by 7.4 points as lifetime average blood lead concentrations increased from 1 to 10 microg per deciliter. Blood lead concentrations, even those below 10 microg per deciliter, are inversely associated with children's IQ scores at three and five years of age, and associated declines in IQ are greater at these concentrations than at higher concentrations. These findings suggest that more U.S. children may be adversely affected by environmental lead than previously estimated. Copyright 2003 Massachusetts Medical Society
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              Exposures to Environmental Toxicants and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in U.S. Children

              Objective The purpose of this study was to examine the association of exposures to tobacco smoke and environmental lead with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Methods Data were obtained from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999–2002. Prenatal and postnatal tobacco exposure was based on parent report; lead exposure was measured using blood lead concentration. ADHD was defined as having current stimulant medication use and parent report of ADHD diagnosed by a doctor or health professional. Results Of 4,704 children 4–15 years of age, 4.2% were reported to have ADHD and stimulant medication use, equivalent to 1.8 million children in the United States. In multivariable analysis, prenatal tobacco exposure [odds ratio (OR) = 2.5; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.2–5.2] and higher blood lead concentration (first vs. fifth quintile, OR = 4.1; 95% CI, 1.2–14.0) were significantly associated with ADHD. Postnatal tobacco smoke exposure was not associated with ADHD (OR = 0.6; 95% CI, 0.3–1.3; p = 0.22). If causally linked, these data suggest that prenatal tobacco exposure accounts for 270,000 excess cases of ADHD, and lead exposure accounts for 290,000 excess cases of ADHD in U.S. children. Conclusions We conclude that exposure to prenatal tobacco and environmental lead are risk factors for ADHD in U.S. children.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: MethodologyRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: MethodologyRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Formal analysisRole: MethodologyRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: ResourcesRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: ResourcesRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: ResourcesRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: Project administrationRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                26 July 2018
                2018
                : 13
                : 7
                : e0200792
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
                [2 ] Department Exposure, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
                [3 ] German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
                TNO, NETHERLANDS
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6270-3869
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0122-7528
                Article
                PONE-D-18-08510
                10.1371/journal.pone.0200792
                6062035
                30048463
                56302f2d-4d88-4d6d-b943-0254d8978ae2
                © 2018 Gerofke et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 22 March 2018
                : 3 July 2018
                Page count
                Figures: 4, Tables: 8, Pages: 23
                Funding
                The study was supported mainly by the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture (BMEL) in Germany ( http://www.bmel.de) but also by the listed Länder (Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Bavaria, Hesse, North Rhine-Westphalia, Hamburg and Bremen) and organisms (European Poultry, Egg and Game Association (EPEGA), Deutscher Jagdverband e.V. (DJV, German Hunting Association), Bayerischer Jagdverband e.V. (BJV, Bavarian Hunting Association), Bundesverband Deutscher Berufsjäger e.V. (German Association of Professional Hunters), Verband der Hersteller von Jagd-, Sportwaffen und Munition e.V. (JSM, Association of the Manufacturers of Hunting and Sports Weapons and Ammunition), Universität für Nachhaltige Entwicklung Eberswalde (HNEE, University for Sustainable Development)). A lot of people helped obtaining the data: the hunters, game traders and others, but were not employed or contracted to do so. The funders had no active role in study design, analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript.
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                All data are available in the Open Agrar Repository at DOI: 10.17590/20180628-093013-0.

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