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      An increase in visceral fat is associated with a decrease in the taste and olfactory capacity

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          Abstract

          Introduction

          Sensory factors may play an important role in the determination of appetite and food choices. Also, some adipokines may alter or predict the perception and pleasantness of specific odors. We aimed to analyze differences in smell–taste capacity between females with different weights and relate them with fat and fat-free mass, visceral fat, and several adipokines.

          Materials and methods

          179 females with different weights (from low weight to morbid obesity) were studied. We analyzed the relation between fat, fat-free mass, visceral fat (indirectly estimated by bioelectrical impedance analysis with visceral fat rating (VFR)), leptin, adiponectin and visfatin. The smell and taste assessments were performed through the "Sniffin’ Sticks" and "Taste Strips" respectively.

          Results

          We found a lower score in the measurement of smell (TDI-score (Threshold, Discrimination and Identification)) in obese subjects. All the olfactory functions measured, such as threshold, discrimination, identification and the TDI-score, correlated negatively with age, body mass index (BMI), leptin, fat mass, fat-free mass and VFR. In a multiple linear regression model, VFR mainly predicted the TDI-score. With regard to the taste function measurements, the normal weight subjects showed a higher score of taste functions. However a tendency to decrease was observed in the groups with greater or lesser BMI. In a multiple linear regression model VFR and age mainly predicted the total taste scores.

          Discussion

          We show for the first time that a reverse relationship exists between visceral fat and sensory signals, such as smell and taste, across a population with different body weight conditions.

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          Most cited references39

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          Sensory specific satiety in man.

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            "Taste Strips" - a rapid, lateralized, gustatory bedside identification test based on impregnated filter papers.

            To elaborate normative values for a clinical psychophysical taste test ("Taste Strips"). The "Taste Strips" are a psychophysical chemical taste test. So far, no definitive normative data had been published and only a fairly small sample size has been investigated. In light of this shortcoming for this easy, reliable and quick taste testing device, we attempted to provide normative values suitable for the clinical use. Normative value acquisition study, multicenter study. The investigation involved 537 participants reporting a normal sense of smell and taste (318 female, 219 male, mean age 44 years, age range 18-87 years). The taste test was based on spoon-shaped filter paper strips ("Taste Strips") impregnated with the four (sweet, sour, salty, and bitter) taste qualities in four different concentrations. The strips were placed on the left or right side of the anterior third of the extended tongue, resulting in a total of 32 trials. With their tongue still extended, patients had to identify the taste from a list of four descriptors, i. e., sweet, sour, salty, and bitter (multiple forced-choice). To obtain an impression of overall gustatory function, the number of correctly identified tastes was summed up for a "taste score". Taste function decreased significantly with age. Women exhibited significantly higher taste scores than men which was true for all age groups. The taste score at the 10(th) percentile was selected as a cut-off value to distinguish normogeusia from hypogeusia. Results from a small series of patients with ageusia confirmed the clinical usefulness of the proposed normative values. The present data provide normative values for the "Taste Strips" based on over 500 subjects tested.
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              Quantitative assessment of gustatory function in a clinical context using impregnated "taste strips".

              Assessment of gustatory sensitivity in a clinical setting is the prerequisite for correct diagnosis and adequate treatment of taste dysfunction. Despite of this, no taste test has been established for the routine clinical testing. The aim of the present study was to create a protocol which is easy to administer. The presently used technique is based on strips made from filter paper which were impregnated with different taste solutions (four concentrations each for sweet, sour, salty and bitter). These strips are placed on the tongue and subjects are asked to identify the taste quality. After establishing the concentration range of the taste solutions, the test was tried in 69 subjects. Each subject received eighteen taste strips (four concentrations of each taste quality plus two blanks) in a pseudo-randomized sequence. Results from this new procedure correlated significantly with the results of the well established extensive three-drop-technique (r69 = 0.67). Repeated measures indicated good reproducibility of the results for the taste strips (r69 = 0.68). These data suggest the usefulness of this new technique in routine clinical practice. Major advantages are long shelf-life, convenience of administration, short time needed for testing (approximately 8 min), and the possibility to test each side of the tongue separately.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                3 February 2017
                2017
                : 12
                : 2
                : e0171204
                Affiliations
                [1 ]CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
                [2 ]Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Endocrinología y Nutrición, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Clínico Virgen de la Victoria, Málaga, Spain
                [3 ]Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital of Bellvitge-IDIBELL, Barcelona, Spain
                [4 ]Department of Psychological, Personality, Evaluation and Treatment of the University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
                [5 ]Department of Basic Psychology, Clinic and Psychobiology of the University Jaume I, Castelló, Spain
                [6 ]Human Pharmacology and Clinical Neurosciences Research Group, Neuroscience Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
                [7 ]Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra Barcelona, Spain
                [8 ]Department of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Nutrition, Institutd’Investigació Biomèdica de Girona (IdlBGi) Hospital Dr Josep Trueta, Girona, Spain
                [9 ]Metabolic Research Laboratory, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, University of Navarra-IdiSNA, Pamplona, Spain
                [10 ]Department of Clinical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
                [11 ]CIBER Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
                [12 ]Endocrine Division, Complejo Hospitalario U. de Santiago, Santiago de Compostela University, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
                The University of Tokyo, JAPAN
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                • Conceptualization: RB CB RdT JMFR GF JGA SJM JMM FFC FFA FJT.

                • Data curation: ZA LGS.

                • Formal analysis: LGS.

                • Funding acquisition: FJT RB CB RdT JMFR GF FFC FFA.

                • Methodology: JCFG ZA JA CSF MMRR JMM JGA LGS.

                • Project administration: FJT RB CB RdT JMFR GF JMM SJM FFC FFA.

                • Resources: FJT FFA SJM.

                • Supervision: JCFG JA CSF MMRR ZA RB CB RdT JMFR GF JGA SJM JMM FFC FFA FJT LGS.

                • Validation: JCFG ZA LGS.

                • Writing – original draft: LGS JCFG FJT.

                • Writing – review & editing: LGS JCFG FJT.

                Article
                PONE-D-16-17945
                10.1371/journal.pone.0171204
                5291407
                28158237
                56af4d27-5708-4848-94cc-c30240108733
                © 2017 Fernandez-Garcia et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 3 May 2016
                : 18 January 2017
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 6, Pages: 14
                Funding
                Funded by: Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ES)
                Award ID: FIS PI14/00290
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100003329, Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad;
                Award ID: PSI2015-68701-R
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: FEDER funds
                Award Recipient :
                Instituto Salud Carlos III (FIS PI14/00290) CIBERObn and CIBERSAM are both initiatives of ISCIII, Spain. Fondos Europeos de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER) Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (PSI2015-68701-R) Jose C. Fernández-García is recipient of a research contract from Servicio Andaluz de Salud (SAS) (B-0033-2014). L. Garrido-Sánchez is supported by a fellowship from the Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria (FIS) “Miguel Servet I” MS13/00188-CP13/00188. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision topublish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
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                Biology and Life Sciences
                Neuroscience
                Sensory Perception
                Taste
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Psychology
                Sensory Perception
                Taste
                Social Sciences
                Psychology
                Sensory Perception
                Taste
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Biochemistry
                Lipids
                Fats
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                Biochemistry
                Hormones
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                Leptin
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                Physiological Parameters
                Body Weight
                Obesity
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                Biology and Life Sciences
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                Smell
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                Psychology
                Sensory Perception
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