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      Calcium Loading, Calcium Accumulation, and Associated Cardiovascular Risks in Dialysis Patients

      review-article
      Blood Purification
      S. Karger AG
      Calcification, Calcium balance, Calcium load, Cardiovascular disease, Hyperphosphatemia, Phosphate binder

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          Abstract

          Calcium and phosphate imbalances are important mutable risk factors for cardiovascular disease in chronic kidney disease (CKD). Nearly all dialysis patients require phosphate binders. These include traditional calcium-based compounds and, more recently, the calcium-free, metal-free, non-absorbed agent, sevelamer hydrochloride. Both binder types reduce serum phosphorus, but differ with respect to calcium load and metabolism. Absorption from calcium-based agents very likely promotes positive total calcium balance in many patients. Positive calcium balance is inappropriate in adults and may promote or accelerate soft-tissue and vascular calcification even in the absence of hypercalcemia. Calcium accumulation in heart and vascular tissues contributes to rapidly progressive cardiovascular calcification – a strong predictor of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in stage 5 CKD. More than two-thirds of stage 5 CKD patients have calcification scores above the 75th percentile for matched controls – scores associated with extremely high risk of cardiovascular events and death.

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          Most cited references41

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          Clinical epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease.

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            Human vascular smooth muscle cells undergo vesicle-mediated calcification in response to changes in extracellular calcium and phosphate concentrations: a potential mechanism for accelerated vascular calcification in ESRD.

            Patients with ESRD have a high circulating calcium (Ca) x phosphate (P) product and develop extensive vascular calcification that may contribute to their high cardiovascular morbidity. However, the cellular mechanisms underlying vascular calcification in this context are poorly understood. In an in vitro model, elevated Ca or P induced human vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) calcification independently and synergistically, a process that was potently inhibited by serum. Calcification was initiated by release from living VSMC of membrane-bound matrix vesicles (MV) and also by apoptotic bodies from dying cells. Vesicles released by VSMC after prolonged exposure to Ca and P contained preformed basic calcium phosphate and calcified extensively. However, vesicles released in the presence of serum did not contain basic calcium phosphate, co-purified with the mineralization inhibitor fetuin-A and calcified minimally. Importantly, MV released under normal physiologic conditions did not calcify, and VSMC were also able to inhibit the spontaneous precipitation of Ca and P in solution. The potent mineralization inhibitor matrix Gla protein was found to be present in MV, and pretreatment of VSMC with warfarin markedly enhanced vesicle calcification. These data suggest that in the context of raised Ca and P, vascular calcification is a modifiable, cell-mediated process regulated by vesicle release. These vesicles contain mineralization inhibitors derived from VSMC and serum, and perturbation of the production or function of these inhibitors would lead to accelerated vascular calcification.
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              Cinacalcet for secondary hyperparathyroidism in patients receiving hemodialysis.

              Treatment of secondary hyperparathyroidism with vitamin D and calcium in patients receiving dialysis is often complicated by hypercalcemia and hyperphosphatemia, which may contribute to cardiovascular disease and adverse clinical outcomes. Calcimimetics target the calcium-sensing receptor and lower parathyroid hormone levels without increasing calcium and phosphorus levels. We report the results of two identical randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials evaluating the safety and effectiveness of the calcimimetic agent cinacalcet hydrochloride. Patients who were receiving hemodialysis and who had inadequately controlled secondary hyperparathyroidism despite standard treatment were randomly assigned to receive cinacalcet (371 patients) or placebo (370 patients) for 26 weeks. Once-daily doses were increased from 30 mg to 180 mg to achieve intact parathyroid hormone levels of 250 pg per milliliter or less. The primary end point was the percentage of patients with values in this range during a 14-week efficacy-assessment phase. Forty-three percent of the cinacalcet group reached the primary end point, as compared with 5 percent of the placebo group (P<0.001). Overall, mean parathyroid hormone values decreased 43 percent in those receiving cinacalcet but increased 9 percent in the placebo group (P<0.001). The serum calcium-phosphorus product declined by 15 percent in the cinacalcet group and remained unchanged in the placebo group (P<0.001). Cinacalcet effectively reduced parathyroid hormone levels independently of disease severity or changes in vitamin D sterol dose. Cinacalcet lowers parathyroid hormone levels and improves calcium-phosphorus homeostasis in patients receiving hemodialysis who have uncontrolled secondary hyperparathyroidism. Copyright 2004 Massachusetts Medical Society
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                BPU
                Blood Purif
                10.1159/issn.0253-5068
                Blood Purification
                S. Karger AG
                978-3-8055-7934-6
                978-3-318-01221-7
                0253-5068
                1421-9735
                2005
                March 2005
                28 February 2005
                : 23
                : Suppl 1
                : 12-19
                Affiliations
                University North Carolina, Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Chapel Hill, N.C., USA
                Article
                83713 Blood Purif 2005;23:12–19
                10.1159/000083713
                15832018
                570217f9-8091-427d-86e0-2edc409f7322
                © 2005 S. Karger AG, Basel

                Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug. Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.

                History
                Page count
                Figures: 1, References: 82, Pages: 8
                Categories
                Review

                Cardiovascular Medicine,Nephrology
                Phosphate binder,Cardiovascular disease,Hyperphosphatemia,Calcium balance,Calcium load,Calcification

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