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      Localized zinc distribution in shark vertebrae suggests differential deposition during ontogeny and across vertebral structures

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          Abstract

          The development of shark vertebrae and the possible drivers of inter- and intra-specific differences in vertebral structure are poorly understood. Shark vertebrae are used to examine life-history traits related to trophic ecology, movement patterns, and the management of fisheries; a better understanding of their development would be beneficial to many fields of research that rely on these calcified structures. This study used Scanning X-ray Fluorescence Microscopy to observe zinc distribution within vertebrae of ten shark species from five different orders. Zinc was mostly localised within the intermedialis and was generally detected at levels an order of magnitude lower in the corpus calcareum. In most species, zinc concentrations were higher pre-birth mark, indicating a high rate of pre-natal zinc deposition. These results suggest there are inter-specific differences in elemental deposition within vertebrae. Since the deposition of zinc is physiologically-driven, these differences suggest that the processes of growth and deposition are potentially different in the intermedialis and corpus calcareum, and that caution should be taken when extrapolating information such as annual growth bands from one structure to the other. Together these results suggest that the high inter-specific variation in vertebral zinc deposition and associated physiologies may explain the varying effectiveness of ageing methodologies applied to elasmobranch vertebrae.

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            Predicting ecological consequences of marine top predator declines.

            Recent studies document unprecedented declines in marine top predators that can initiate trophic cascades. Predicting the wider ecological consequences of these declines requires understanding how predators influence communities by inflicting mortality on prey and inducing behavioral modifications (risk effects). Both mechanisms are important in marine communities, and a sole focus on the effects of predator-inflicted mortality might severely underestimate the importance of predators. We outline direct and indirect consequences of marine predator declines and propose an integrated predictive framework that includes risk effects, which appear to be strongest for long-lived prey species and when resources are abundant. We conclude that marine predators should be managed for the maintenance of both density- and risk-driven ecological processes, and not demographic persistence alone.
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              Patterns and ecosystem consequences of shark declines in the ocean.

              Whereas many land predators disappeared before their ecological roles were studied, the decline of marine apex predators is still unfolding. Large sharks in particular have experienced rapid declines over the last decades. In this study, we review the documented changes in exploited elasmobranch communities in coastal, demersal, and pelagic habitats, and synthesize the effects of sharks on their prey and wider communities. We show that the high natural diversity and abundance of sharks is vulnerable to even light fishing pressure. The decline of large predatory sharks reduces natural mortality in a range of prey, contributing to changes in abundance, distribution, and behaviour of small elasmobranchs, marine mammals, and sea turtles that have few other predators. Through direct predation and behavioural modifications, top-down effects of sharks have led to cascading changes in some coastal ecosystems. In demersal and pelagic communities, there is increasing evidence of mesopredator release, but cascading effects are more hypothetical. Here, fishing pressure on mesopredators may mask or even reverse some ecosystem effects. In conclusion, large sharks can exert strong top-down forces with the potential to shape marine communities over large spatial and temporal scales. Yet more empirical evidence is needed to test the generality of these effects throughout the ocean.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: SoftwareRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: ResourcesRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ResourcesRole: SoftwareRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: SoftwareRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Writing – original draft
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                11 January 2018
                2018
                : 13
                : 1
                : e0190927
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
                [2 ] ANSTO, Lucas Heights, NSW, Australia
                [3 ] NSW DPI Fisheries, Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Mosman, NSW, Australia
                [4 ] Australian Synchrotron, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
                Department of Agriculture and Water Resources, AUSTRALIA
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                [¤]

                Current address: School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle, Ourimbah, NSW, Australia

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9459-111X
                Article
                PONE-D-17-31172
                10.1371/journal.pone.0190927
                5764331
                29324879
                5a84d3df-1299-47f8-b8ae-70a28f145f64
                © 2018 Raoult et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 28 August 2017
                : 24 December 2017
                Page count
                Figures: 3, Tables: 2, Pages: 14
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001230, Macquarie University;
                Award ID: MQRES
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: NSW Department of Primary Industries (AU)
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: NSW Industries Synchrotron Access Scheme
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: AINSE
                Award ID: ALNGRA13029
                Award Recipient :
                We thank the NSW Department of Primary Industries and the Department of Biological Sciences at Macquarie University for providing funding and some of the samples for this research. An AINSE research award ALNGRA13029 allowed a dialogue between ANSTO and Macquarie University that led to this project. Access to the Australian Synchrotron was supported under the NSW Industry Synchrotron Access Scheme, funded by the NSW Office of Science and Research. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Physical Sciences
                Chemistry
                Chemical Elements
                Zinc
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Anatomy
                Musculoskeletal System
                Spine
                Vertebrae
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Anatomy
                Musculoskeletal System
                Spine
                Vertebrae
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Eukaryota
                Animals
                Vertebrates
                Fish
                Chondrichthyes
                Elasmobranchii
                Sharks
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Eukaryota
                Animals
                Vertebrates
                Fish
                Chondrichthyes
                Elasmobranchii
                Research and Analysis Methods
                Microscopy
                Light Microscopy
                Fluorescence Microscopy
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Physiology
                Physiological Processes
                Calcification
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Physiology
                Physiological Processes
                Calcification
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Zoology
                Fish Biology
                Fish Physiology
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Zoology
                Animal Physiology
                Vertebrate Physiology
                Fish Physiology
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Physiology
                Physiological Processes
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Physiology
                Physiological Processes
                Custom metadata
                All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information file.

                Uncategorized
                Uncategorized

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