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      Transcriptional profiling of methyl jasmonate-induced defense responses in bilberry ( Vaccinium myrtillus L.)

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          Abstract

          Background

          Bilberry ( Vaccinium myrtillus L.) is one of the most abundant wild berries in the Northern European ecosystems. This species plays an important ecological role as a food source for many vertebrate and invertebrate herbivores. It is also well-recognized for its bioactive compounds, particularly substances involved in natural defenses against herbivory. These defenses are known to be initiated by leaf damage (e.g. chewing by insects) and mediated by activation of the jasmonic acid (JA) signaling pathway. This pathway can be activated by exogenous application of methyl jasmonate (MeJA), the volatile derivative of JA, which is often used to stimulate plant defense responses in studies of plant-herbivore interactions at ecological, biochemical, and molecular organismal levels. As a proxy for herbivore damage, wild V. myrtillus plants were treated in the field with MeJA and changes in gene expression were compared to untreated plants.

          Results

          The de novo transcriptome assembly consisted of 231,887 unigenes. Nearly 71% of the unigenes were annotated in at least one of the databases interrogated. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs), between MeJA-treated and untreated control bilberry plants were identified using DESeq. A total of 3590 DEGs were identified between the treated and control plants, with 2013 DEGs upregulated and 1577 downregulated. The majority of the DEGs identified were associated with primary and secondary metabolism pathways in plants. DEGs associated with growth (e.g. those encoding photosynthesis-related components) and reproduction (e.g. flowering control genes) were frequently down-regulated while those associated with defense (e.g. encoding enzymes involved in biosynthesis of flavonoids, lignin compounds, and deterrent/repellent volatile organic compounds) were up-regulated in the MeJA treated plants.

          Conclusions

          Ecological studies are often limited by controlled conditions to reduce the impact of environmental effects. The results from this study support the hypothesis that bilberry plants, growing in natural conditions, shift resources from growth and reproduction to defenses while in a MeJA-induced state, as when under insect attack. This study highlights the occurrence of this trade-off at the transcriptional level in a realistic field scenario and supports published field observations wherein plant growth is retarded and defenses are upregulated.

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          The PIN auxin efflux facilitator network controls growth and patterning in Arabidopsis roots.

          Local accumulation of the plant growth regulator auxin mediates pattern formation in Arabidopsis roots and influences outgrowth and development of lateral root- and shoot-derived primordia. However, it has remained unclear how auxin can simultaneously regulate patterning and organ outgrowth and how its distribution is stabilized in a primordium-specific manner. Here we show that five PIN genes collectively control auxin distribution to regulate cell division and cell expansion in the primary root. Furthermore, the joint action of these genes has an important role in pattern formation by focusing the auxin maximum and restricting the expression domain of PLETHORA (PLT) genes, major determinants for root stem cell specification. In turn, PLT genes are required for PIN gene transcription to stabilize the auxin maximum at the distal root tip. Our data reveal an interaction network of auxin transport facilitators and root fate determinants that control patterning and growth of the root primordium.
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            Flavonoids: biosynthesis, biological functions, and biotechnological applications

            Flavonoids are widely distributed secondary metabolites with different metabolic functions in plants. The elucidation of the biosynthetic pathways, as well as their regulation by MYB, basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH), and WD40-type transcription factors, has allowed metabolic engineering of plants through the manipulation of the different final products with valuable applications. The present review describes the regulation of flavonoid biosynthesis, as well as the biological functions of flavonoids in plants, such as in defense against UV-B radiation and pathogen infection, nodulation, and pollen fertility. In addition, we discuss different strategies and achievements through the genetic engineering of flavonoid biosynthesis with implication in the industry and the combinatorial biosynthesis in microorganisms by the reconstruction of the pathway to obtain high amounts of specific compounds.
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              Glutathione in plants: an integrated overview.

              Plants cannot survive without glutathione (γ-glutamylcysteinylglycine) or γ-glutamylcysteine-containing homologues. The reasons why this small molecule is indispensable are not fully understood, but it can be inferred that glutathione has functions in plant development that cannot be performed by other thiols or antioxidants. The known functions of glutathione include roles in biosynthetic pathways, detoxification, antioxidant biochemistry and redox homeostasis. Glutathione can interact in multiple ways with proteins through thiol-disulphide exchange and related processes. Its strategic position between oxidants such as reactive oxygen species and cellular reductants makes the glutathione system perfectly configured for signalling functions. Recent years have witnessed considerable progress in understanding glutathione synthesis, degradation and transport, particularly in relation to cellular redox homeostasis and related signalling under optimal and stress conditions. Here we outline the key recent advances and discuss how alterations in glutathione status, such as those observed during stress, may participate in signal transduction cascades. The discussion highlights some of the issues surrounding the regulation of glutathione contents, the control of glutathione redox potential, and how the functions of glutathione and other thiols are integrated to fine-tune photorespiratory and respiratory metabolism and to modulate phytohormone signalling pathways through appropriate modification of sensitive protein cysteine residues. © 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Rafaelb@hvl.no
                Tarald.Seldal@hvl.no
                Stein.Joar.Hegland@hvl.no
                crodriguez@njaes.rutgers.edu
                jokawash@scarletmail.rutgers.edu
                James.Polashock@ars.usda.gov
                Journal
                BMC Plant Biol
                BMC Plant Biol
                BMC Plant Biology
                BioMed Central (London )
                1471-2229
                12 February 2019
                12 February 2019
                2019
                : 19
                : 70
                Affiliations
                [1 ]GRID grid.477239.c, Faculty of Engineering and Science, , Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, ; Sogndal, Norway
                [2 ]ISNI 0000 0004 0607 975X, GRID grid.19477.3c, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, , Norwegian University of Life Sciences, ; Ås, Norway
                [3 ]Rutgers, Department of Entomology, Philip E. Marucci Center for Blueberry and Cranberry Research, The State University of New Jersey, Chatsworth, NJ USA
                [4 ]ISNI 0000 0004 0404 0958, GRID grid.463419.d, Genetic Improvement of Fruits and Vegetables Lab, Philip E. Marucci Center for Blueberry and Cranberry Research, , United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, ; Chatsworth, NJ USA
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7977-2921
                Article
                1650
                10.1186/s12870-019-1650-0
                6373060
                30755189
                5b0efdb3-559f-4b77-8b91-736ced39905b
                © The Author(s). 2019

                Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

                History
                : 25 June 2018
                : 14 January 2019
                Funding
                Funded by: Norwegian Research Council
                Award ID: 204403/E40
                Funded by: Norwegian Environment Agency
                Categories
                Research Article
                Custom metadata
                © The Author(s) 2019

                Plant science & Botany
                differential expression,transcriptome,herbivory,secondary metabolism,flowering,signaling

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