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      Association of Types of Life Events with Depressive Symptoms among Puerto Rican Youth

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          Abstract

          The main objective of this study was to examine the association between four types of adverse life events (family environment, separation, social adversity, and death) and the development of depressive symptoms among Puerto Rican youth. This was a secondary analysis using three waves (2000–2004) of interview data from the Boricua Youth Study of 10–13 year old Puerto Rican youth residing in New York and Puerto Rico with no depressive symptoms at baseline (n = 977). Depressive symptoms increased with an increase in social adversity, separation, death, and death events. Youth support from parents was a significant protective factor for all adverse events and parent coping was a protective factor in social adversity events. Relying on standard diagnostic tools is ideal to identify youth meeting the criteria for a diagnosis of depression but not useful to detect youth who present with subclinical levels of depression. Youth with sub-clinical levels of depression will not get treated and are at increased risk of developing depression later in life. Adverse life events are potentially relevant to use in conjunction with other screening tools to identify Puerto Rican youth who have subclinical depression and are at risk of developing depression in later adolescence.

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          Children of depressed parents: an integrative review.

          This article reviews the various literatures on the adjustment of children of depressed parents, difficulties in parenting and parent-child interaction in these families, and contextual factors that may play a role in child adjustment and parent depression. First, issues arising from the recurrent, episodic, heterogeneous nature of depression are discussed. Second, studies on the adjustment of children with a depressed parent are summarized. Early studies that used depressed parents as controls for schizophrenic parents found equivalent risk for child disturbance. Subsequent studies using better-defined samples of depressed parents found that these children were at risk for a full range of adjustment problems and at specific risk for clinical depression. Third, the parenting difficulties of depressed parents are described and explanatory models of child adjustment problems are outlined. Contextual factors, particularly marital distress, remain viable alternative explanations for both child and parenting problems. Fourth, important gaps in the literature are identified, and a consistent, if unintentional, "mother-bashing" quality in the existing literature is noted. Given the limitations in knowledge, large-scale, long-term, longitudinal studies would be premature at this time.
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            The Social Readjustment Rating Scale.

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              Searching for the structure of coping: a review and critique of category systems for classifying ways of coping.

              From analyzing 100 assessments of coping, the authors critiqued strategies and identified best practices for constructing category systems. From current systems, a list of 400 ways of coping was compiled. For constructing lower order categories, the authors concluded that confirmatory factor analysis should replace the 2 most common strategies (exploratory factor analysis and rational sorting). For higher order categories, they recommend that the 3 most common distinctions (problem- vs. emotion-focused, approach vs. avoidance, and cognitive vs. behavioral) no longer be used. Instead, the authors recommend hierarchical systems of action types (e.g., proximity seeking, accommodation). From analysis of 6 such systems, 13 potential core families of coping were identified. Future steps involve deciding how to organize these families, using their functional homogeneity and distinctiveness, and especially their links to adaptive processes.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                27 October 2016
                2016
                : 11
                : 10
                : e0164852
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
                [2 ]Behavioral Sciences Research Institute, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States of America
                Maastricht Universitair Medisch Centrum+, NETHERLANDS
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                • Conceptualization: GJ.

                • Formal analysis: GJ.

                • Writing – original draft: GJ.

                • Writing – review & editing: OCP XH SL GC.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6798-9368
                Article
                PONE-D-15-48501
                10.1371/journal.pone.0164852
                5082880
                27788173
                5b3d33b9-b113-4a17-aac3-c49480da31cc
                © 2016 Jaschek et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 5 November 2015
                : 3 October 2016
                Page count
                Figures: 0, Tables: 3, Pages: 15
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000025, National Institute of Mental Health;
                Award ID: RO-1 MH56401
                Funded by: National Center for Minority Health Disparities
                Award ID: P20 MD000537-01
                Funded by: Maryland Population Research Center
                Award ID: Fellowship 2010-2011
                Award Recipient :
                Fellowship support from the Maryland Population Research Center (2010-2011) made the original exploratory research on residential mobility and depression possible. The Boricua Youth Study was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health through grant RO-1 MH56401 (Dr. Bird, Principal Investigator) and P20 MD000537-01 (Dr. Canino, Principal Investigator) from the National Center for Minority Health Disparities.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Mental Health and Psychiatry
                Mood Disorders
                Depression
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Mental Health and Psychiatry
                Psychological Stress
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Psychology
                Psychological Stress
                Social Sciences
                Psychology
                Psychological Stress
                People and Places
                Population Groupings
                Age Groups
                Adolescents
                Social Sciences
                Sociology
                Education
                Schools
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Mental Health and Psychiatry
                Social Sciences
                Sociology
                Criminology
                Crime
                Violent Crime
                People and Places
                Population Groupings
                Age Groups
                Children
                People and Places
                Population Groupings
                Families
                Children
                Research and Analysis Methods
                Research Design
                Survey Research
                Census
                Custom metadata
                Data used for these analyses are third party data, and are not owned by the authors. Permission was granted to the authors to access the data by meeting the following requirements: Boricua Youth Study data and associated documentation for waves 1-3 can be made available to users only under a data-sharing agreement that provides for: (1) a commitment to using the data only for research purposes and not to identify any individual participant; (2) a commitment to securing the data using appropriate computer technology; (3) a commitment to destroying or returning the data after analyses are completed; and (4) prior Institutional Review Board approval and completion of ethics training. Even though final datasets will be stripped of identifiers prior to release for sharing, there remains the possibility of deductive disclosure of subjects with unusual characteristics. Researchers interested in accessing data from the first three waves of the Boricua Youth Study should contact the Principal Investigator: Cristiane Duarte, PhD, MPH, Associate Professor Child Psychiatry, Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Columbia University—New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York 10032, duartec@ 123456nyspi.columbia.edu .

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