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      Black Carbon as an Additional Indicator of the Adverse Health Effects of Airborne Particles Compared with PM 10 and PM 2.5

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          Abstract

          Background: Current air quality standards for particulate matter (PM) use the PM mass concentration [PM with aerodynamic diameters ≤ 10 μm (PM 10) or ≤ 2.5 μm (PM 2.5)] as a metric. It has been suggested that particles from combustion sources are more relevant to human health than are particles from other sources, but the impact of policies directed at reducing PM from combustion processes is usually relatively small when effects are estimated for a reduction in the total mass concentration.

          Objectives: We evaluated the value of black carbon particles (BCP) as an additional indicator in air quality management.

          Methods: We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of health effects of BCP compared with PM mass based on data from time-series studies and cohort studies that measured both exposures. We compared the potential health benefits of a hypothetical traffic abatement measure, using near-roadway concentration increments of BCP and PM 2.5 based on data from prior studies.

          Results: Estimated health effects of a 1-μg/m 3 increase in exposure were greater for BCP than for PM 10 or PM 2.5, but estimated effects of an interquartile range increase were similar. Two-pollutant models in time-series studies suggested that the effect of BCP was more robust than the effect of PM mass. The estimated increase in life expectancy associated with a hypothetical traffic abatement measure was four to nine times higher when expressed in BCP compared with an equivalent change in PM 2.5 mass.

          Conclusion: BCP is a valuable additional air quality indicator to evaluate the health risks of air quality dominated by primary combustion particles.

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          Association of fine particulate matter from different sources with daily mortality in six U.S. cities.

          F Laden, L Neas, D W Dockery … (2000)
          Previously we reported that fine particle mass (particulate matter [less than and equal to] 2.5 microm; PM(2.5)), which is primarily from combustion sources, but not coarse particle mass, which is primarily from crustal sources, was associated with daily mortality in six eastern U.S. cities (1). In this study, we used the elemental composition of size-fractionated particles to identify several distinct source-related fractions of fine particles and examined the association of these fractions with daily mortality in each of the six cities. Using specific rotation factor analysis for each city, we identified a silicon factor classified as soil and crustal material, a lead factor classified as motor vehicle exhaust, a selenium factor representing coal combustion, and up to two additional factors. We extracted daily counts of deaths from National Center for Health Statistics records and estimated city-specific associations of mortality with each source factor by Poisson regression, adjusting for time trends, weather, and the other source factors. Combined effect estimates were calculated as the inverse variance weighted mean of the city-specific estimates. In the combined analysis, a 10 microg/m(3) increase in PM(2.5) from mobile sources accounted for a 3.4% increase in daily mortality [95% confidence interval (CI), 1.7-5.2%], and the equivalent increase in fine particles from coal combustion sources accounted for a 1.1% increase [CI, 0.3-2.0%). PM(2.5) crustal particles were not associated with daily mortality. These results indicate that combustion particles in the fine fraction from mobile and coal combustion sources, but not fine crustal particles, are associated with increased mortality.
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            Ischemic and thrombotic effects of dilute diesel-exhaust inhalation in men with coronary heart disease.

            Nicholas Mills, Håkan Törnqvist, Manuel Gonzalez … (2007)
            Exposure to air pollution from traffic is associated with adverse cardiovascular events. The mechanisms for this association are unknown. We conducted a controlled exposure to dilute diesel exhaust in patients with stable coronary heart disease to determine the direct effect of air pollution on myocardial, vascular, and fibrinolytic function. In a double-blind, randomized, crossover study, 20 men with prior myocardial infarction were exposed, in two separate sessions, to dilute diesel exhaust (300 mug per cubic meter) or filtered air for 1 hour during periods of rest and moderate exercise in a controlled-exposure facility. During the exposure, myocardial ischemia was quantified by ST-segment analysis using continuous 12-lead electrocardiography. Six hours after exposure, vasomotor and fibrinolytic function were assessed by means of intraarterial agonist infusions. During both exposure sessions, the heart rate increased with exercise (P<0.001); the increase was similar during exposure to diesel exhaust and exposure to filtered air (P=0.67). Exercise-induced ST-segment depression was present in all patients, but there was a greater increase in the ischemic burden during exposure to diesel exhaust (-22+/-4 vs. -8+/-6 millivolt seconds, P<0.001). Exposure to diesel exhaust did not aggravate preexisting vasomotor dysfunction, but it did reduce the acute release of endothelial tissue plasminogen activator (P=0.009; 35% decrease in the area under the curve). Brief exposure to dilute diesel exhaust promotes myocardial ischemia and inhibits endogenous fibrinolytic capacity in men with stable coronary heart disease. Our findings point to ischemic and thrombotic mechanisms that may explain in part the observation that exposure to combustion-derived air pollution is associated with adverse cardiovascular events. (ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00437138 [ClinicalTrials.gov].). Copyright 2007 Massachusetts Medical Society.
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              Long-Term Effects of Traffic-Related Air Pollution on Mortality in a Dutch Cohort (NLCS-AIR Study)

              Rob Beelen, Gerard Hoek, Piet van den Brandt … (2007)
              Background Several studies have found an effect on mortality of between-city contrasts in long-term exposure to air pollution. The effect of within-city contrasts is still poorly understood. Objectives We studied the association between long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution and mortality in a Dutch cohort. Methods We used data from an ongoing cohort study on diet and cancer with 120,852 subjects who were followed from 1987 to 1996. Exposure to black smoke (BS), nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter ≤mu;M2.5), as well as various exposure variables related to traffic, were estimated at the home address. We conducted Cox analyses in the full cohort adjusting for age, sex, smoking, and area-level socioeconomic status. Results Traffic intensity on the nearest road was independently associated with mortality. Relative risks (95% confidence intervals) for a 10-μg/m3 increase in BS concentrations (difference between 5th and 95th percentile) were 1.05 (1.00–1.11) for natural cause, 1.04 (0.95–1.13) for cardiovascular, 1.22 (0.99–1.50) for respiratory, 1.03 (0.88–1.20) for lung cancer, and 1.04 (0.97–1.12) for mortality other than cardiovascular, respiratory, or lung cancer. Results were similar for NO2 and PM2.5, but no associations were found for SO2. Conclusions Traffic-related air pollution and several traffic exposure variables were associated with mortality in the full cohort. Relative risks were generally small. Associations between natural-cause and respiratory mortality were statistically significant for NO2 and BS. These results add to the evidence that long-term exposure to ambient air pollution is associated with increased mortality.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Environ Health Perspect
                Journal ID (publisher-id): EHP
                Title: Environmental Health Perspectives
                Publisher: National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
                ISSN (Print): 0091-6765
                ISSN (Electronic): 1552-9924
                Publication date (Electronic): 02 August 2011
                Publication date (Print): December 2011
                Volume: 119
                Issue: 12
                Pages: 1691-1699
                Affiliations
                [1 ]National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
                [2 ]Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
                [3 ]Division of Population Health Sciences and Education and the Medical Research Council–Health Protection Agency Centre for Environment and Health, St. George’s, University of London, London, United Kingdom
                [4 ]Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
                [5 ]Energy Research Center of the Netherlands, Petten, the Netherlands
                [6 ]Netherlands Applied Research Organization, Utrecht, the Netherlands
                [7 ]Medical Research Council–Health Protection Agency for Environment and Health, King’s College, London, United Kingdom
                [8 ]Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
                Author notes
                Address correspondence to N.A.H. Janssen, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands. Telephone: 31 302744027. Fax: 31 302744451. E-mail: nicole.janssen@ 123456rivm.nl
                Article
                Publisher ID: ehp.1003369
                DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1003369
                PMC ID: 3261976
                PubMed ID: 21810552
                SO-VID: 5f911cae-3348-4d4f-88d7-5b580595420f
                Copyright statement: Copyright @ 2011
                License:

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                Date received : 21 December 2010
                Date accepted : 02 August 2011
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Public health
                Keywords: combustion particles,review,air quality management,black carbon,health effects,particulate matter
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Public health
                Keywords: combustion particles, review, air quality management, black carbon, health effects, particulate matter

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