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      Where to forage when afraid: Does perceived risk impair use of the foodscape?

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          Abstract

          The availability and quality of forage on the landscape constitute the foodscape within which animals make behavioral decisions to acquire food. Novel changes to the foodscape, such as human disturbance, can alter behavioral decisions that favor avoidance of perceived risk over food acquisition. Although behavioral changes and population declines often coincide with the introduction of human disturbance, the link(s) between behavior and population trajectory are difficult to elucidate. To identify a pathway by which human disturbance may affect ungulate populations, we tested the Behaviorally Mediated Forage‐Loss Hypothesis, wherein behavioral avoidance is predicted to reduce use of available forage adjacent to disturbance. We used GPS collar data collected from migratory mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus) to evaluate habitat selection, movement patterns, and time‐budgeting behavior in response to varying levels of forage availability and human disturbance in three different populations exposed to a gradient of energy development. Subsequently, we linked animal behavior with measured use of forage relative to human disturbance, forage availability, and quality. Mule deer avoided human disturbance at both home range and winter range scales, but showed negligible differences in vigilance rates at the site level. Use of the primary winter forage, sagebrush ( Artemisia tridentata), increased as production of new annual growth increased but use decreased with proximity to disturbance. Consequently, avoidance of human disturbance prompted loss of otherwise available forage, resulting in indirect habitat loss that was 4.6‐times greater than direct habitat loss from roads, well pads, and other infrastructure. The multiplicative effects of indirect habitat loss, as mediated by behavior, impaired use of the foodscape by reducing the amount of available forage for mule deer, a consequence of which may be winter ranges that support fewer animals than they did before development.

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          Landscape modification and habitat fragmentation: a synthesis

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            Nonlethal Effects in the Ecology of Predator-Prey Interactions

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              Evolution and behavioural responses to human-induced rapid environmental change

              Almost all organisms live in environments that have been altered, to some degree, by human activities. Because behaviour mediates interactions between an individual and its environment, the ability of organisms to behave appropriately under these new conditions is crucial for determining their immediate success or failure in these modified environments. While hundreds of species are suffering dramatically from these environmental changes, others, such as urbanized and pest species, are doing better than ever. Our goal is to provide insights into explaining such variation. We first summarize the responses of some species to novel situations, including novel risks and resources, habitat loss/fragmentation, pollutants and climate change. Using a sensory ecology approach, we present a mechanistic framework for predicting variation in behavioural responses to environmental change, drawing from models of decision-making processes and an understanding of the selective background against which they evolved. Where immediate behavioural responses are inadequate, learning or evolutionary adaptation may prove useful, although these mechanisms are also constrained by evolutionary history. Although predicting the responses of species to environmental change is difficult, we highlight the need for a better understanding of the role of evolutionary history in shaping individuals’ responses to their environment and provide suggestion for future work.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                sdwinnel@uwyo.edu
                Journal
                Ecol Appl
                Ecol Appl
                10.1002/(ISSN)1939-5582
                EAP
                Ecological Applications
                John Wiley and Sons Inc. (Hoboken )
                1051-0761
                30 July 2019
                October 2019
                : 29
                : 7 ( doiID: 10.1002/eap.v29.7 )
                : e01972
                Affiliations
                [ 1 ] Haub School of Environment and Natural Resources University of Wyoming 804 East Fremont Street Laramie Wyoming 82072 USA
                [ 2 ] Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit Department of Zoology and Physiology University of Wyoming Dept. 3166, 1000 East University Avenue Laramie Wyoming 82071 USA
                [ 3 ] Western Ecosystems Technology, Inc. 200 South 2nd Street Laramie Wyoming 82070 USA
                [ 4 ] Wyoming Game and Fish Department Pinedale Regional Office 432 Mill Street Pinedale Wyoming 82941 USA
                [ 5 ] Department of Ecosystem Science and Management University of Wyoming Department 3354, 1000 East University Avenue Laramie Wyoming 82071 USA
                [ 6 ] Department of Biological Sciences Boise State University 1910 University Drive Boise Idaho 83725 USA
                [ 7 ] Wyoming Game and Fish Department Jackson Regional Office 420 North Cache Jackson Wyoming 83001 USA
                Author notes
                [*] [* ]E‐mail: sdwinnel@ 123456uwyo.edu
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3789-7558
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0236-7343
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4834-5465
                Article
                EAP1972
                10.1002/eap.1972
                6852243
                31301178
                5fa5c1f7-6803-468c-9943-a5ddc66e1a09
                © 2019 The Authors. Ecological Applications published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of Ecological Society of America

                This is an open access article under the terms of the http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non‐commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.

                History
                : 29 October 2018
                : 24 April 2019
                : 14 June 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 7, Tables: 3, Pages: 16, Words: 12765
                Categories
                Article
                Articles
                Custom metadata
                2.0
                October 2019
                Converter:WILEY_ML3GV2_TO_JATSPMC version:5.7.1 mode:remove_FC converted:13.11.2019

                behaviorally mediated forage‐loss hypothesis,energy development,forage use,habitat selection,human disturbance,indirect habitat loss,movement patterns,mule deer,odocoileus hemionus,perceived risk,time‐budgeting behavior

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