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      The Organization and Control of Intra-Limb Anticipatory Postural Adjustments and Their Role in Movement Performance

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          Abstract

          Anticipatory Postural Adjustments (APAs) are commonly described as unconscious muscular activities aimed to counterbalance the perturbation caused by the primary movement, so as to ensure the whole-body balance, as well as contributing to initiate the displacement of the body center of mass when starting gait or whole-body reaching movements. These activities usually create one or more fixation chains which spread over several muscles of different limbs, and may be thus called inter-limb APAs. However, it has been reported that APAs also precede voluntary movements involving tiny masses, like a flexion/extension of the wrist or even a brisk flexion of the index-finger. In particular, such movements are preceded by an intra-limb APA chain, that involves muscles acting on the proximal joints. Considering the small mass of the moving segments, it is unlikely that the ensuing perturbation could threaten the whole-body balance, so that it is interesting to enquire the physiological role of intra-limb APAs and their organization and control compared to inter-limb APAs. This review is focused on intra-limb APAs and highlights a strict correspondence in their behavior and temporal/spatial organization with respect to inter-limb APAs. Hence it is suggested that both are manifestations of the same phenomenon. Particular emphasis is given to intra-limb APAs preceding index-finger flexion, because their relatively simple biomechanics and the fact that muscular actions were limited to a single arm allowed peculiar investigations, leading to important conclusions. Indeed, such paradigm provided evidence that by granting a proper fixation of those body segments proximal to the moving one APAs are involved in refining movement precision, and also that APAs and prime mover activation are driven by a shared motor command.

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          Most cited references97

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          Human cerebellar activity reflecting an acquired internal model of a new tool.

          Theories of motor control postulate that the brain uses internal models of the body to control movements accurately. Internal models are neural representations of how, for instance, the arm would respond to a neural command, given its current position and velocity. Previous studies have shown that the cerebellar cortex can acquire internal models through motor learning. Because the human cerebellum is involved in higher cognitive function as well as in motor control, we propose a coherent computational theory in which the phylogenetically newer part of the cerebellum similarly acquires internal models of objects in the external world. While human subjects learned to use a new tool (a computer mouse with a novel rotational transformation), cerebellar activity was measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging. As predicted by our theory, two types of activity were observed. One was spread over wide areas of the cerebellum and was precisely proportional to the error signal that guides the acquisition of internal models during learning. The other was confined to the area near the posterior superior fissure and remained even after learning, when the error levels had been equalized, thus probably reflecting an acquired internal model of the new tool.
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            Movement, posture and equilibrium: interaction and coordination.

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              Applications of prism adaptation: a tutorial in theory and method.

              Data and theory from prism adaptation are reviewed for the purpose of identifying control methods in applications of the procedure. Prism exposure evokes three kinds of adaptive or compensatory processes: postural adjustments (visual capture and muscle potentiation), strategic control (including recalibration of target position), and spatial realignment of various sensory-motor reference frames. Muscle potentiation, recalibration, and realignment can all produce prism exposure aftereffects and can all contribute to adaptive performance during prism exposure. Control over these adaptive responses can be achieved by manipulating the locus of asymmetric exercise during exposure (muscle potentiation), the similarity between exposure and post-exposure tasks (calibration), and the timing of visual feedback availability during exposure (realignment).
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Hum Neurosci
                Front Hum Neurosci
                Front. Hum. Neurosci.
                Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1662-5161
                19 October 2016
                2016
                : 10
                : 525
                Affiliations
                [1]Human Motor Control and Posture Lab, Section Human Physiology of the Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, Università degli Studi di Milano Milan, Italy
                Author notes

                Edited by: Eric Yiou, University of Paris-Sud, France

                Reviewed by: Jan Babic, Jožef Stefan Institute, Slovenia; Alexandre Kubicki, University of Burgundy, France

                *Correspondence: Paolo Cavallari paolo.cavallari@ 123456unimi.it
                Article
                10.3389/fnhum.2016.00525
                5069406
                27807411
                60c725f2-4159-4a76-bafe-491c22b27552
                Copyright © 2016 Cavallari, Bolzoni, Bruttini and Esposti.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution and reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 06 September 2016
                : 04 October 2016
                Page count
                Figures: 8, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 106, Pages: 14, Words: 10703
                Categories
                Neuroscience
                Review

                Neurosciences
                intra-limb apas,precision,motor control,postural control,posturo-focal integration,human
                Neurosciences
                intra-limb apas, precision, motor control, postural control, posturo-focal integration, human

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